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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
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http://archive.org/details/kellymillershistOOmill_0 


KELIvY  MILLER,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 
P»„  of  the  College  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Howard  University.  Washm^ton  D.  C 


KELLY  MILLER'S  HISTORY 

OP 

The  World  War 


FOK 


Human  Rights 

An  intensely  Human  and  Brilliant  Account  of  the  World 
War;  Why  America  Entered  the  Conflict;  What  the  Allies 
Fought  For;  And  a  Thrilling  Account  of  the  Import- 
ant Part  Taken  by  the  Negro  in  the  Tragic  Defeat 
of  Germany;  The  Downfall  of  Autocracy,  and 
Complete    Victory   for    the   Cause   of 
Righteousness  and  Freedom. 

INCLUDING 

A  Wonderful  Array  of  Striking  Pictures  Made  from  Recent  Official  Photo- 

graphs,  Illustrating  and  Describing  the  New  and  Awful  Devices  Uicd 

in  the  Horrible  Methods  of  Modern  Warfare,  together  with 

Remarkable   Pictures  of  the  Negro  in  Action 

in  Both  Army  and  Navy, 

BY 
KELLY  MILLER.  A.  M..  LL.  D. 
^  The  Well-Known  and  Popular  Author  of 

Race  Adjustment,"  "Out  of  the  House  of  Bondage' 
and  **The  Disgrace  of  Democracy." 

ALSO 

Important  Contributions  by  JOHN  J.  PERSHING,    the  Famous  General 

FREDERICK  DRINKER,  the  Noted  War  Correspondent, 

and  E.  A.  ALLEN,  Author  of  "The  History 

of  Civilization." 


Copyright,  1919 

By 

A.  JENKINS 

Copyright,  1919 

By 

O.  KELLEB 


A  COLORED  ACE  BRINGING  DOWN  A  GERMA      AEROPLANE. 


THIS  COLORED  HERO  DIED  TO  SAVE  HIS  COMRADES 

(See  Page  569) 


CONSTANT  ARTILLERY  FIRE  AND  BARRAGE  ENABLE  AMERICAN  TROQPS  TO  MAKE 

THEIR  IRRESISTIBLE  ADVANCE.    THIS  GUN  MANNED  BY  NEGRO 

GUNNERS  DID  WONDERFUL  WORK. 


THE  NEGRO'S  PART  IN  THE  WAR 

By  Professor  Kelly  Miller,  the  Well-Known  Thinker 

AND  Writer. 


This  treatise  will  set  forth  the  black  man's  part  in  the 
world's  war  with  the  logical  sequence  of  facts  and  the  bril- 
liant power  of  statement  for  which  the  author  is  famous. 
The  mere  announcement  that  the  author  of  '^Eace  Adjust- 
ment," *'Out  of  the  House  of  Bondage,''  and  '^The  Dis- 
grace of  Democracy"  is  to  present  a  history  of  the  JSTegro 
in  the  great  world  conflict,  is  sufficient  to  arouse  expectancy 
among  the  wide  circle  of  readers  who  eagerly  await  any- 
thing that  flows  from  his  pen. 

In  this  treatise,  Professor  Miller  will  trace  briefly,  but 
with  consuming  interest,  the  relation  of  the  Negro  to  the 
great  wars  of  the  past  He  will  point  out  the  never-failing 
fount  of  loyalty  and  patriotism  which  characterizes  the 
black  man's  nature,  and  will  show  that  the  Negro  has  never 
been  a  hireling,  but  has  always  been  characterized  by  that 
moral  energy  which  actuates  all  true  heroism. 

The  conduct  of  the  Negro  in  the  present  struggle  will 
be  set  forth  with  a  brilliant  and  pointed  pen.  The  idea  of 
three  hundred  thousand  American  Negroes  crossing  three 
thousand  miles  of  sea  to  fight  against  autocracy  of  the  Ger- 
man crown  constitutes  the  most  interesting  chapter  in  the 
history  of  this  modern  crusade  against  an  unholy  cause. 
The  valor  and  heroism  of  the  Afro-American  contingent 
were  second  to  none  according  to  the  unanimous  testimony 
of  those  who  were  in  command  of  this  high  enterprise. 


IV 


THE  NEGRO'S  PART  IN  THE  WAR. 


The  story  of  Negro  officers  in  command  of  troops  of 
their  own  color  will  prove  the  wisdom  of  a  policy  entered 
upon  with  much  distrust  and  misgiving.  It  is  just  here 
that  Professor  Miller  reaches  the  high-water  mark.  Here 
is  a  story  never  told  before,  because  the  world  has  never 
before  witnessed  Negro  officers  in  large  numbers  partici- 
pating in  the  directive  side  of  war  waged  on  the  high  level 
of  modern  science  and  system. 

Professor  Miller's  treatise  carries  its  own  prophecy. 
He  logically  enough  forecasts  the  future  of  the  race  in  glow- 
ing colors  as  the  result  of  his  loyal  and  patriotic  conduct  in 
this  great  world  epoch. 

The  author  wisely  queries:  ^'When,  hereafter,  the 
Negro  asks  for  his  rights  as  an  American  citizen,  where 
can  the  American  be  found  with  the  heart  or  the  hardihood 

to  say  him,  Nayl" 

The  work  will  be  profusely  illustrated. 

Publishers. 

March  27,  1919. 


GENERAL  PREFACE 

WHILE  the  underlying  causes  of  the  greatest  war 
in  all  history  must  be  traced  far  back  into  the 
centuries,  the  one  great  object  of  the  conflict  which 
was  precipitated  by  the  assassination  of  the  Archduke 
Francis  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  in  Bosnia,  at  the  end  of 
Jime,  1914,  is  the  ultimate  determination  as  to  whether 
imperialism  as  exemplified  in  the  government  of  Germany 
shall  rule  the  world,  or  whether  democracy  shall  reign. 

Whenever  men  or  nations  disregard  those  principles 
which  society  has  laid  down  for  their  conduct  in  modern 
civilized  life,  and  obligation  and  duty  are  forgotten  in  the 
desire  for  self -advancement,  conflict  results. 

Since  the  days  of  Athens  and  Sparta  the  world's  great- 
est wars  have  in  the  main  been  conflicts  of  ideals— democ- 
racy being  arrayed  against  oligarchy— men  fighting  for 
individual  rights  as  against  militarism  and  military  dom- 
ination. 

In  the  World  War,  which  terminated  with  the  sign- 
ing of  the  armistice,  November  11,  1918,  which  painted 
the  green  fields  of  France  and  Belgium  red  with  blood, 
and  swept  nations  into  the  most  significant  and  bitter 
struggle  in  all  history,  the  fight  was  against  the  Imperial 
Government  of  Germany,  by  men  and  nations  who  claim 
that  humanity  the  world  over  has  rights  that  must  be 
observed. 

Germany  has  brought  upon  herself  the  destruction  of 
her  government  by  ruthlessly  trampling  upon  her  neigh- 
bors and  assuming  that  ''might  is  right.'' 

The  Imperial  Government,  led  by  the  House  of  Hohen- 
zollern,  was  suffering  from  an  exaggerated  ego.     Her 


vi  GENERAL  PREFACE. 

trouble  was  psychological.  The  men  who  study  the  strange 
workings  and  twists  of  the  human  mind  which  land  some 
men  in  the  institutions  for  the  criminal  insane,  agree  that 
when  any  man  becomes  obsessed  w4th  an  idea  and  ^' rides 
a  hobby"  to  the  exclusion  of  all  else,  he  loses  his  balance 
and  develops  an  obliquity  of  view  which  makes  him  a  dan- 
gerous creature. 

Germany  was  obsessed  with  the  spirit  of  militarism 
and  almost  everything  else  had  been  sacrificed  to  this  idol. 
The  very  first  appearance  of  Germans  in  history  is  as  a 
w^arlike  people.  The  earliest  German  literature  is  of  folk- 
tales about  war  heroes,  and  these  stories  tell  of  the  manly 
virtues  of  the  heroes. 

It  is  true  that  there  are  many  scientists,  poets,  and 
musicians  among  the  Germans,  but  their  w^arlike  side  must 
never  be  forgotten.  The  entire  race  is  imbued  with  the 
military  spirit,  the  infiuence  reaching  to  every  phase  of 
national  life.  All  that  was  best  in  the  nation  was  raised 
to  its  highest  efficiency  through  military  training,  but  in 
the  accomplishment  of  its  purposes  the  House  of  Hohen- 
zollern,  w^hich  is  responsible  for  the  development  of  the 
national  fighting  arm,  neglected  much  and  produced  mil- 
lions of  creatures  who  are  but  human  machines,  taught 
to  obey  orders  without  consideration  as  to  the  effect  their 
acts  might  produce,  whether  right  or  wrong. 

In  their  criticisms  of  the  Prussian  militarism  the 
world  democracies  defined  militarism  as  an  arrogant,  or 
exclusive,  professional  military  spirit,  developed  by  train- 
ing and  environment  until  it  became  despotic,  and  assumed 
superiority  over  rational  motives  and  deliberations. 

This  attitude  was  reflected  in  the  conduct  of  the  Kaiser, 
who,  as  illustrative  of  the  point,  is  quoted  at  the  dedi- 
cation of  the  monument  to  Prince  Frederick  Charles  at 
Frankfurt-on-the-Oder  in  1891,  as  having  said,  *'We  would 


GENERAL  PREFACE.  vii 

rather  sacrifice  our  eighteen  army  corps  and  our  forty-two 
millions  inhabitants  on  the  field  of  battle  than  surrender  a 
single  stone  of  what  my  father  and  Prince  Charles  Fred- 
erick gained." 

His  speeches  were  filled  with  similar  bombastic  and 
extravagant  expressions  which  were  the  subject  of  inter- 
national comment  for  many  years.  Other  countries  besides 
Germany  have  maintained  great  armies,  but  their  main- 
tenance has  been  but  an  incidental  part  of  the  general  busi- 
ness of  the  nation  and  there  was  no  submerging  of  the 
spirit  which  seeks  and  demands  appropriate  public  ideals 
in  government  and  action.  So  that  while  other  elements 
have  always  tended  to  produce  friction  between  neighbor- 
ing countries,  it  was  adamant,  stubborn,  military  Prussian- 
ism  which  asserted  itself  in  the  middle  of  1914  and  set 
the  world  afire. 

Enough  is  known  at  this  wilting  to  show  that  the  cost 
in  lives,  money,  morals  and  weakening  of  humanity  as  a 
whole,  is  staggering,  and  yet  the  whole  truth  can  not  be  real- 
ized for  years  to  come.  In  our  own  great  struggle,  which 
had  for  its  object  the  liberation  of  the  Negro,  the  scars 
which  our  country  received  have  not  yet  been  entirely  elim- 
inated. Portions  of  the  country  devastated  by  the  soldiers 
still  bear  the  marks  of  the  invasion,  but  what  was  lost  in 
money  and  material  things  was  made  up  by  the  welding 
together  of  the  two  sections  of  the  country.  The  Union 
was  made  a  concrete,  humanitarian  body  of  citizens.  The 
battle  was  for  the  right  and  liberty  triumphed.  And  by 
the  defeat  of  Grermany  liberty  again  triumphs  and  the 
world  is  made  a  safe  place  in  which  to  live. 

And  just  as  America  fought  for  liberty  in  the  stirring 
days  of  1776,  and  her  peoples  fought  one  another  in  the 
trying  days  of  1861-65,  so  America  was  drawn  into  the 
World  ^s  War  that  the  principles  of  liberty,  for  which  she 


viii  GENERAL  PREFACE. 

has  ever  stood,  might  be  perpetuated  throughout  the 
world,  and  that  an  international  peace  might  be  estab- 
lished, which  has  for  its  purposes  the  ending  of  such  con- 
vulsions as  have  shaken  the  world  since  August,  1914,  since 
the  first  shots  were  fired  in  fair  Belgium  by  German 
invaders. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTORY 

CIVILIZATION  AT  IssTTR— The  German  Empire— Chabactes  of  William  II— The 

Gbeat  Conspiracy— The  War  by  Years— United  States  in  the  War— Two 

Hundred  Fifty  Miles  of  Battle— The  Downfall  of  Turkey— The  Demo- 

CBtATic  Close  of  the  War ^ ' 

CHAPTER  II 
GEN.  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY 
Organization  of  His  General  Staff— Training  in  France— In  the  Aisne  Of- 
fensive—At Chateau  Thierry— The  St.  Mihiel  Salient— Meuse-Argonne, 
FmsT  Phase — ^The  Battle  in  the  Forest — Summary 49 

CHAPTER  III 
PRESIDENT  WILSON'S  REVIEW  OF  THE  WAR 
Troop  Movement  During  the  Year— Tribute  to  American  Soldiers— SplenbH) 
Spirit  of  the  Nation— Resume  the  Work  of  Peace— Outline  of  Work  in 
Paris — Support  of  Nation  Urged    «^ 

CHAPTER  IV 
THE  FLASH  THAT  SET  THE  WORLD  AFLAME 
Teutons  Find  in  a  Murder  the  Excuse  for  War— Germany  Inspired  by  Am- 
bitions FOB  World  Control— The  Struggle  for  Commercial  Supremacy  a 
Factor — The  Underlying  INIotives  89 

CHAPTER  V 
WHY  AMERICA  ENTERED  THE  WAR 
The  Iron   Hand   of   Prussianism— The  Arrogant   Hohenzollern   Attitude- 
Secretary  Lane  Tells  Why  We  Fight— Broken  Pledges— Laws  Violated 

^Prussianism  the  Child  of  Barbarity — Germany's  Plans  for  a  Worhd 

Empire  ^^ 

CHAPTER  VI 
THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD 
Germany's   Barbarity— The   Devastation   of   Belgium— Human   Fiends— Fire- 
brand AND  Torch — Rape  and  Pillage — The  Sacking  of  Louvain— Wanton 
Destruction — Official  Proof    113 

CHAPTER  VII 
THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE 
A  Voracious  Sea  Monster— The  Ruthless  Destructive  Policy  of  Germany- 
Starvation  OF  Nations  the  Goal— How  the  Submarines  Operate— Some 

Personal  Experiences   1^^ 

is 


%  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

THWARTING  THE  U-BOAT 

IvETS  TO  Entangle  the  Sea  Shakes  of  Wab — "Chaseks"  or  "Ski^iming  dish" 
Boats — "Blimps"  and  Seaplanes— Hunting  the  Submarine  With  ''Lance," 
Bomb  and  Gun — A  Sailor's  Description 154 

CHAPTER  IX 

THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE 

Aeroplanes  and  Airships — They  Spy  the  Movements  of  Forces  on  Land  on 
Sea — Lead  Disastrous  Bomb  Attacks — ^Valuable  in  "Spotting"  Sub- 
marines— The  Bombardment  at  Messines  Ridge 170 

CHAPTER  X 
WAR'S  STRANGE  DEVICES 
Chemistry  a  Demon  of  Destruction — Poison  Gas  Bombs—Gas  :Masks — Hand 
Grenades — Mortars — "Tanks" — Feudal     "Battering     Rams" — Steel     Hel- 
mets— Strange  Bullets — Motor  Plows — Real  Dogs  of  Wae 185 

CHAPTER  XI 
WONDERFUL  WAR  WEAPONS 
The  Terrible  Rapid-fire  Gun — Armored  Automobiles  and  Automobile  Artillery 
— Howitzers — Mounted     Forts — Armored     Trains — Observation     Towers — 
Wireless  Apparatus — The  Army  Pantry 205 

CHAPTER  XII 
THE  WORLD'S  ARMIES 
The    Efficient    German    Organization — ^The    Landwehr    and    Landsturm — 
General  Forms  of  Military  Organization — The  Brave  French  Troops— 
The    Picturesque    Italian    Soldiery — The    Peace    and    War    Strength- 
Available  Fighting  Men — Fortificaiions  224 

CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  WORLD'S  NAVIES 

Germany's  Sea  Strength — Great  Bsitain's  Immense  War  Fleet— Immense 
Fighting  Craft— The  United  States'  New  Battle  Cruisers— The  Fastest 
and  Biggest  Ocean  Fighting  Ships — The  Picturesque  Marines:  The 
Soldiers  of  the  Sea  . .  \ .  ■ .  -A. '. 243 

CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR 
Unexpected  Developments — ^How  the  Wae  Flames  Spread — A  Score  of  Coun- 
tries    Involved — The     Points     of     Contact — Picturesque     and     Rugged 
Bulgaria,    Eoumania,    Servia,    Greece,    Italy    and    Historic    Southeast 
EuEOPB  • 259 


CONTENTS.  xi 

CHAPTER  XV 
MODERN  WAR  METHODS 

iNDmDTTAL  InITIATTVE  AS  AGAINST   MASS  MOVEMENTS— TrENCH   WARFARE   A  GaME 

OF  Hide  and  Seek— Rats  and  Disease— Surgery's  Triumphs— Changed  Tac- 
tics—Italian Mountain  Fighting  281 

CHAPTER  XVI 
WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR 
S'HE  HAS  Won  "Her  Place  m  the  Sun"— Rich  and  Poor  in  the  Munitions 
Factortes—'Nurse  and  Ambulance  Driver— Khaki  and  Trousers— Organ- 
izer AND  Farmer— Heroes  in  the  Stress  of  Circumstances-Dying  Men's 
Work  for  Men — Even  a  "Bobbie'* 298 

CHAPTER  XVII 
THE  TERRIBLE  PRICE 

A  Nation  of  Men  Destroyed— Millions  m  Shipping  and  Comimerce  Destroyed— 
WoRLD^s  Maps  Changed— Billions  in  Money— Immense  Debts— Nation's 
Wealth— The  United  States  a  Great  Provider 316 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  WORLD  RLTLERS  AT  WAR 

Wgodrow  Wilson,  the  Champion  of  Democracy— The  Egotistical  Kaiser-- 

The  German  Crown  Prince— Britain's  Monarch— Con  stantine  Who  Quit 

Rather  than  Fight  Germany— President  Poincare— And  Other  National 

Heads  ^^^ 

CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  WAR'S  WHO'S  WHO 
Striking  Figures  in  the  Confijct— Joffre,  the  Hero  of  Marne— Nivelle,  the 
French  Com.mander— Sir  Douglas  Haig— The  Kaiser's   Chancellor— Ven- 
iZELOs— "Black  Jack"  Pershing ^^^ 

CHAPTER  XX 
CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR 
Stibstitutss  for  Cotton — Nitrates  Produced  from  Air — ^Yeast  a  Real  Sub- 
stitute for  Beef— Seaweed  Made  to  Give  up  Potash— A  Gangrene  Pre- 
vENTiTivE— Soda  Mads  Out  of  Salt  Water— America  Chemically  Indepen- 
dent    

CHAPTER  XXI 

CUB  NEIGHBORING  ALLY 

Canada's   RECsmTiNG— Raise  33,000   Tboops   in  Two  Months— First   Expedi- 

TiOl^AKY    J?0RCE   TO    CrOSS    ATLANTIO—BR AVERY    AT   YpRES    AND    LeNS— MEETING 

Difficult  Problems — Quebec  Aroused  by  Conscription S71 


xii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XXII 
THE  HEROIC  ANZAC 
Forces  that  Stirred  the  World  in  the  Gallipoli  Campaign — Famous  as  Sap- 
pers— The  Blasting   of   Messines   Ridge — Two  Years   Tunnelling — 30,000 
Germans  Blown  to  Atoms — 1,000,000  Pounds  of  Explosives  Used — Troops 
that  Were  Transported  11,000  ISIiles 390 

CHAPTER  XXIII 
AMERICA  STEPS  IN 
President  Wilson*s  Famous  Message  to  Congress— The  War  Resolution — 
April  6,  1917,  Sees  the  United  States  at  War — Review  of  the  Negotia- 
tions Between  Germany  and  America — The  U-Boat  Restricted  Zone  An- 
nouncement of  Germany — Premier  Lloyd  George  on  America  in  the  Con- 
flict        399 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD 

Makes  World's  Biggest  War  Loan — Seize  German  Ships — Intrigue  Exposed — 

General  Pershing  and  Staff  in  Europe — The  Navy  on  Duty  in  North  Sea 

— First   United   States   Troops   Reach   France — Germany's   Attempts   to 

Sink  I'roop  Ships  Thwarted  by  Navy's  Guns 427 

CHAPTER  XXV 
A  GERMAN  CRISIS 
The  Downfall  of  Bethmann-Hollweg — The  Crown  Prince  in  the  Limb  Light 
— Hollweg's  Unique  Career — Dr.  Georg  Michaelis  Appointed  Chancellor 
^-Thb  Kaiser  and  How  He  Gets  His  Immense  Power 444 

CHAPTER  XXVI 
UNCLE  SAM  AND  THE  NEUTRALS 
President  Wilson  Puts  Embargo  on  Food  Shipments — Scandinavian  Countries 
Furnishing  Supplies  to  Germany  Inspires  Order — The  Difficult  Position 
of  Norway,  Denmark,  Holland  and  Switzerland 452 

CHAPTER  XXVII 
THE  ACTIONS  OF  THE  WAR 
From  Bosnia  to  Flanders — Marne  the  Turning  Point  of  the  Conflict — The 
Conquests  of  Servia  and  Rumania — The  Fall  of  Bagdad — Russia's  Women 
Soldiers — America's  Conscripts  463 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 
AMERICAN  FORCES  BECOME  FACTOR 
United    Sttes   Soldiers   Inspired   Allied    Troops — Russian   Government   Col- 
lapses— Italian   Army   Fails — Allied   War  Council   Formed — Foch   Com- 
mands Allied  Armies — Pershing  Offers  American  Troops— Under  Fire — 
U-BoAT  Bases  Haided  by  British 473 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

CHAPTER  XXIX 
AMERICANS  TURN  WAR'S  TIDE 
Bmlliant  American  Fighting  Stops  Hun  Advance — French  and  British  In- 
spired— Famous  Marines  Lead  in  Picturesque  Attack — Halt  Germans  at 
Chatteau-Thierry — Used  Open  Style  Fighting — ^Thousands  op  Germans 
Slain— United  States  Troops  in  Siberia — New  Conscription  Bill  Passed — 
Allied  Successes  on  All  Fronts  489 

CHAPTER  XXX 

VICTORY— PEACE 

The  German  Empire  Collapses— Foch's  Strategy  Wins — American  Inspiration 

A    Big    Factor — Bulgaria,    Turkey    and    Ausrtia    Quit    War — Monarchs 

Fall — Kaiser  Abdicates  and  Flees  Germany — Armistice  Signed — November 

11,  Peace    497 

THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR 507 


ONE  OF  THE  WOUNDED  AND  HIS  MOTHER. 
A  member  of  the  famous  369th  Colored    Infantry,    who    was    wounded    in    tlie 
fighting,   and   his  proud   mother.      He  sacrificed  a  leg  for  the  cause  of  righteousness 
and  World  Peace. 


CHEERFULLY  DOING  THE  WORK  REQUIRED. 
Transpcrting-  tan  bark,  to  be  used  in  connection  with  tanning  leather. 


The  colored   women  did  willing-ly  and  efficiently  their 


No  slackers, 
part  in  helping  win  the  wax. 


ENTERTAINING  CONVALESCENT  AMERICAN  SOLDIERS  AT 'aUTHEIL^*  ^''''' 
Negro  musicians  were  in  gre^t  demand  in  France.      This   picture   shows   Lieut     Europe's 

noted  colored    band. 


The  .rriv  ,      .  ..  ^""^  ^^'^^  '^'  LaBOURBOULE,    PRANCE.  ®  '"■""''  '"■  *"" 

^'  Of  the  cccea  5;-i^e,a..^er.a.e.^..ot^  excHe.ent.       Th,.    ha„a   heraiae^ 


Photo  Press  111.  Serv» 
A  SNIPER    AT  WORK. 
This  papier-mache  camouflage,  made  to   imitate  a  dead  horse,  furnished  good  protection 
^  for   the  sharpshooter. 


Photo  Press  111.  Serv. 
SENEGALIANS  ON  THE    SOMME    FRONT. 
These  men  were  in  the  thick  of  the  fighting.     Ever  ready  and  always  anxious  to   do 

their   oaxt. 


©  Press   111.    Serv. 
FRENCH  ZOUAVES  TAKEN   PPcISONERS    BY    GERMANS. 
They  were  formerly  artists  in  a  Paris  cafe-concert. 


Photo  Press  Ill«  Serv. 


WOUNDED  COLORED  SOLDIERS  ON  THE  MACEDONIAN  FRONT. 
They  were  with  the  ambulance  X,  A.,  and  the  major  surgeon  Is  distributing'  cigarettes. 


Private 
Henry  Johnson 


Private 
Needham  Rol)erts 


Of  the  New  York  National  Guards  (noW  the  369th),  who  have  been  decorated  by 
the  French  for  routing  24  Germans  and  preventing-  the  carrying  out  of  a  well- 
developed  plan  to  assail  one  of  the  most  important  points  of  resistance  on  the 
American  front.  They  have  been  awarded  the  War  Cross  by  the  French  General 
of  the  division  under  whom  they  are  serving. 


Copyrighted  by  Committee  on  Public  Informatioru 
COLORED  SOLDIERS  BUILDING  ROADS  "OVER  THERE." 


Copyrigrhted  by  Committee  on  Public  Information. 
COLORED  SOLDIERS  IN  THE  TRENCHES  "OVER  THERE." 
(Note  Uie  tin  hats.) 


Copyrlgrhted  by  Cominittee  on  Public  Information. 
HOTEL  BOOKER  T.  WASHINGTON  "OVER  THERE." 
The  Negro  Soldiers  are  surely  fighting  for  Democracy.     It  is  coming  to  them 

by  leaps  and  bounds. 


Copyrighted  by  Committee  on  Public  Information. 
COLORED  SOLDIERS  LEAVING  AN  AMERICAN  PORT  FOR  "OVER  THERE." 
(See  them  dajicing  on  the  right.) 


t — 


•UK— n-i~ii. 


-•"—»•— i*^ 


I        The   Late  Major  Walker,   of  the   First  Colored   Battalion, 
District  of  Columbia  National  Guard 


THE  late  Major  James  E.  Walker  was  born  in  Virginia,  Sep- 
tember 7,  1874.  He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools  of 
TT.  ,  Washmgton,  D.  C,  and  was  graduated  from  the  M  Street 
High  School  in  1893,  and  the  Miner  Normal  School  in  1894.  For 
i^nn  ^-^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  public  school  service,  and  since 

1899  was  supervising  principal.  In  1896  he  was  made  Lieutenant  in 
the  l^irst  Separate  Battalion  of  the  National  Guard  of  the  District 
of  Columbia.  In  1909  he  was  made  Captain  and  in  1912,  through 
competitive  examination,  was  commissioned  Major.  His  command 
was  called  out  to  guard  the  White  House,  and  while  on  this  duty 
Major  Walker's  health  became  impaired.  He  was  sent  to  the  U.  S. 
Hospital  at  Fort  Bayard,  New  Mexico,  for  treatment,  where  he  died 
April  4,  1918. 


•■■>— M'*r 


O  -M 


CHAPTER  I. 

Inteoductoky. 

CIVILIZATION  AT  Isst:i>-The  Gebman  Empibe-Chauacter  of  William  II-The 

GREAT   CONSPIBACY-THE   WAE  BY   YEARS-UNITED   STATES   IN    THE  WAB-TWO 

Hundred  Fifty  Miles  of  Battle-The  Downfall  of  Turkey-The  Demo- 
cratic Close  of  the  War. 

THE  World  War,  terminated  by  the  signing  of  the 
armistice   November    11,    1918,    was    attended    with 

more  far-reaching  changes  than  any  war  known  to 
history,  and  is  destined  to  so  profoundly  influence  civili- 
zation that  we  see  in  it  the  beginning  of  a  new  age.    Some- 
what similar  wars  in  the  past  were  the  campaigns  of  Alex- 
ander; the  wars  that  overthrew  the  Roman  Empire  and 
the  Napoleonic  wars  of  a  previous  century;  but  this  one 
war  surpasses  them  all,  measured  by  any  scale  that  can 
be  applied  to  military  operations.    It  was  truly  a  World 
War,  thus  in  a  class  by  itself.     Beginning  in  Central 
Europe,  twenty-eight  nations— nearly  all  of  the  important 
nations  of  the  world— with  a  total  population  of  about 
1,600,000,000— or    eleven-twelfths    of    the    human    race- 
became  involved.    It  cost  10,000,000  human  lives,  17,000,000 
more  suffered  bodily  injury;  the  money  cost  was  about 
$200,000,000,000,  but  who  can  measure  the  cost  in  untold 
suffering  caused  by  ruined  homes  and  wrecked  lives  that 
attended  it"?    Or  who  can  measure  the  property  loss,  con- 
sidering that  the  fairest  provinces  of  Europe  were  swept 
with  the  bezom  of  destruction  ? 

Rightly  to  judge  the  real  significance  of  such  a  world 
struggle,  we  must  consider  conditions  that  made  it  pos- 
sible; study  the  issue  involved  stripped  of  all  misleading 
statements;  review  its  course  and  weigh  the  nature  of  the 
profound  changes— geographical,  political  and  economic— 

17 


18  INTRODUCTORY. 

that  resulted.  We  shaU  find  that  this  war  was  the  cul- 
mination of  century-old  causes;  that  two  rival  theories  of 
government-impossible  to  longer  co-exist-met  in  deadly 
conflict;  and  that  civilization  itself  was  the  stake  at  issue 
We  shaU  see  that  beyond  the  wreck  of  empires  and  troubled 
days  of  reconstruction  now  upon  us-through  it  all  ap- 
proaches a  wonderful  new  age.  Autocracy  has  crumbled; 
a  higher  form  of  democracy  will  arise  and  in  peaceful 
days  to  come  the  nations  of  the  world  will  rapidly  advance 
in  all  that  constitutes  national  well-being. 

THE  GERMAN  STATES. 
The  early  history  of  Germany  is  a  confused  panorama 
of  a  thousand  years,  during  which  time  Central  Europe 
was  a  country  of  numerous  separate  states,  many  of  them 
at  times  coming  together  as  a  more  or  less  closely  knit 
confederacy  under  the  lead  of  a  powerful  state,  only  to 
fall  apart  into  a  mass  of  confused  units  at  a  later  date.  It 
is  interesting  to  learn  that  among  the  Teutonic  knights  of 
that  early  time,  none  was  more  noted  than  Count  Thassilo 
Von  ZoUern  who  founded  the  house  of  Hohenzollem,  that 
played  such  an  ambitious  role  in  European  history,  the 
house  whose  downfall  was  one  of  the  dramatic  results  of 
the  war. 

THE  RISE  OF  PRUSSIA. 
At  its  height  the  German  Empire  consisted  of  a  union 
of  twenty-five  Germanic  states  of  various  grades  and  the 
Reiehland  of  Alsace-Lorraine  under  the  leadership  of 
Prussia,  by  far  the  most  important  state  of  the  Empire. 
The  foundation  of  Prussia's  greatness  was  laid  by  Fred- 
erick the  Great  in  1763  when  he  tore  Silesia  from  Austria 
in  an  entirely  unprovoked  war.  He  wished  to  enlarge  the 
bounds  of  Prussia,  he  coveted  Silesia,  so  he  took  it.  In 
that  deed  of  spoliation  we  see  manifested  the  spirit  that 


/ 

/ 


INTRODUCTORY.  19 

bas  animated  official  Germany  since  that  date.  Not  only 
is  the  House  of  HohenzoUern  descended  from  the  Robber 
Knights  of  old,  but  the  same  is  true  of  the  military  caste 
of  Germany  generally.  Recent  centuries  have  cast  only  a 
thin  veneer  of  modern  thought  over  essentially  medieval 
conceptions  of  national  rights  and  duties. 

THE  DAYS  OF  BISMARCK. 
For  a  century  after  the  reign  of  Frederick,  Prussia 
remained  the  most  prominent  Germanic  state  in  Europe. 
Then  we  come  to  the  days  of  Bismarck.  He  is  regarded 
as  a  remarkable  statesman.  He  himself  delighted  to  be 
known  as  the  man  of  ^^ Blood  and  Iron."  Judging  from 
his  acts  his  one  motive  in  life  was  to  advance  the  power 
and  influence  of  Prussia.  In  the  decade  1860-1870  he 
instigated  three  wars,— with  Denmark  in  1864,  with  Aus- 
tria in  1866,  with  France  in  1870,— not  one  of  which  was 
justifiable.  The  war  with  France  was  occasioned  by  de- 
liberately changing  the  wording  of  a  telegram— in  itself 
friendly— from  the  King  of  Prussia  to  Napoleon  III, 
knowing  it  would  result  in  war.  All  were  short  wars,  all 
resulted  in  victory  for  Prussia  and  consequent  increase 
in  territory.  Under  the  glamour  of  the  great  victory  over 
France  in  1871  came  the  formation  of  the  German  Empire. 

THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE. 
Thus  there  suddenly  arose  in  Central  Europe,  in  the 
place  of  the  weak  confederation  of  earlier  years,  one  em- 
pire of  great  actual  strength,  generously  endowed  as 
regards  territory,  and  at  the  head  of  that  empire  was  a 
state  that  alone  of  modern  states  most  resembles  Rome 
of  early  centuries,  that  ruled  the  Mediterranean  world, 
imposing  on  the  conquered  people  of  that  section  her  lan- 
guage, her  laws  and  her  customs.  Like  her  great  proto- 
type, we  now  know  that  official  Prussia  regarded  all  she 


20  INTRODUCTORY. 

had  accomplished  to  the  formation  of  the  empire  as  sim- 
ply a  station  reached  in  a  career  of  progress  which  was 
to  end  in  a  World  empire  as  greatly  surpassing  that  of 
Eome  in  her  palmy  days  as  the  world  of  the  twentieth 
century  surpasses  the  known  world  of  Roman  times. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EMPIRE. 
The  empire  enjoyed  a  brief  span  of  national  life.  In 
less  than  fifty  years  it  ceased  to  exist,  a  republic  of  an 
uncertain  nature  takes  its  place.  To  outward  appearances 
the  development  of  the  empire  w^as  a  brilliant  one.  A 
colonial  empire  was  established—mostly  in  Africa— nearly 
five  times  as  great  in  area  as  the  home  emxpire;  she  had 
large  possessions  in  the  Pacific  and  had  gained  a  foothold 
in  China.  The  rich  potash  and  iron  deposits  of  Alsace  in- 
creased her  wealth  and  marvelously  built  up  her  industries 
and  she  became  one  of  the  greatest  manufacturing  nations 
af  modern  times.  Her  population  doubled,  her  foreign 
trade  increased  four  fold,  her  shipping  grew  by  leaps  and 
bounds.  Her  army  became  so  perfected  that  it  was  ac- 
knowledged to  be  the  greatest  military  machine  the  world 
had  ever  seen;  she  was  building  a  navy  that  threatened 
the  supremacy  of  England  on  the  sea. 

BUILT  ON  A  FOUNDATION  OF  SAND. 
In  spite  of  this  brilliant  development,  the  empire 
tested  on  a  foundation  of  sand.  You  will  never  under- 
stand the  World  War  unless  you  grasp  this  thought  and 
its  justification.  The  government  was  autocratic,  though 
under  the  form  of  a  constitutional  government.  The  entire 
military  class  in  Germany  held  to  theories  of  government, 
of  national  rights  and  wrongs  that  belonged  to  the  middle 
ages.  Theories  of  state-craft  which  the  world  long  since 
outgrew  were  proclaimed  and  taught,  and  enforced  by 
every  means  at  command  of  the  government,  the  military 


INTRODUCTORY.  21 

class,  the  professors,  scientists  and  theologians  of  Ger- 
many. Education  and  religion  were  state  controlled.  As 
a  consequence,  every  German  child  from  his  cradle  to  his 
grave  was  under  the  influence  of  state  officials  and  never 
allowed  to  forget  reverence  for  the  kaiser,  the  glorious 
military  record  of  Germany,  German  supremacy  in  every 
department  of  culture.  Such  a  government  was  hopelessly 
behiMd  modern  ideas. 

WILLIAM  II. 

William  II  was  the  third  emperor  of  Germany,— also 
the  last.  His  reign  began,  in  pomp  and  ceremony,  June 
15, 1888,  it  ended  in  the  darkness  and  gloom  of  night,  shortly 
before  the  signing  of  the  armistice,  November  11,  1918. 
Other  reigns  have  been  longer  in  duration ;  none  surpassed 
his  in  deeds.  When  his  reign  began  he  said  he  wculd  lead 
his  people  to  ^^ shining  days."  He  did  so;  but  *' shining 
days"  ended  in  despairing  night. 

Personally,  William  II  was  an  able  man,  but  he  was 
not  well  balanced.  In  the  early  days  of  his  reign,  Bismarck 
confided  to  a  friend  that  it  would  some  day  be  necessary 
for  Germany  to  confine  William  II  in  an  insane  asylum. 
We  must  remember  his  lineage,  his  long  line  of  ancestors 
dating  back  to  the  Robber  Knights  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
all  used  to  the  exercise  of  autocratic  power.  Medieval 
conceptions  were  his  by  inheritance.  He  believed  he  v/as 
divinely  commissioned  to  rule  Germany ;  he  said  so  in  his 
speeches.  He  believed  he  was  a  man  of  destiny  who  was 
to  advance  Germany  to  the  zenith  of  earthly  greatness; 
he  hhnself,  not  someone  else,  asserted  this.  He  asserted 
that  while  Napoleon  failed  in  his  great  scheme  of  con- 
quest, he,  by  God's  help,  would  succeed.  Every  promi- 
nent military  leader  in  Germany  applauded  such  beliefs. 
He  said  that  when  he  contemplated  the  paintings  of  his 


22  INTRODUCTORY. 

ancestors,  and  the  military  chiefs  of  Germany,  who  ad- 
vanced the  insignificant  Mark  of  Brandenbury  to  the  rank 
of  the  most  powerful  state  in  Europe,  they  seemed  to  re- 
proach him  for  not  being  active  in  similar  work.  But  we 
now  know  that  he  was  not  idle. 

ACTIVITIES  IN  WHICH  HE  WAS  INTERESTED. 
One  year  after  the  accession  of  William  II  he  paid  a 
spectacular  visit  to  *'his  friend"  (as  he  called  him)  Abdul 
Hamid,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  the  head  of  one  of  the  most 
cruel,  licentious,  incompetent,  blood-thirsty  governments 
that  ever  cursed  the  world ;  greeted  him  with  a  kiss,  put  on 
a  Turkish  uniform  (fez  and  all),  and  assured  the  Moham- 
medan world  that  he  was  henceforth  their  friend.  The 
ignorant  Turks  actually  supposed  he  had  become  a  Mo- 
hammedan and  native  papers  spoke  of  him  as  *^His  Islamic 
Holiness.''  In  the  light  of  history,  the  meaning  of  all  this 
is  so  clear  that  he  who  runs  may  read,  and  the  wayfaring 
man,  though  a  fool,  need  not  err  therein.  This  visit  was 
repeated  in  1898.  For  more  than  twenty  years  every  effort 
was  made  to  extend  Grerman  influence  in  Turkey,  because 
that  country  with  its  minerals,  its  oils,  its  wonderfully 
strong  strategical  location  was  vital  to  the  success  of  a  vast 
scheme  of  conquest  official  Germany  with  William  II  as 
leader  was  contemplating. 

PAN-GERMANISM. 
Two  years  after  his  accession,  there  was  organized  the 
Pan-Germanic  League.  This  League  soon  attracted  to  its 
ranks  the  entire  class  of  Prussian  Junkers,  virtually  all 
the  military  class,  and  a  galaxy  of  writers  and  speakers. 
The  purpose  of  the  league  was  to  foster  in  the  minds  of 
German  people  the  idea  that  it  was  their  privilege,  right 
and  duty  to  extend  the  power,  influence  and  political  dom- 
inance of  Germany  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  peacefully  if 


INTRODUCTORY.  23 

possible,  otherwise  by  the  sword.  This  doctrine  was  taught 
openly  and  boldly  in  Germany  in  books  and  pamphlets 
and  by  means  of  lectures  with  such  frankness  and  fullness 
of  details  that  the  world  at  large  laughed  at  it  as  an  ex- 
uberant dream  of  fanatics.  Intellectual,  military,  and  offi- 
cial Germany  was  in  earnest.  Her  generals  wrote  books 
illustrated  with  maps  showing  the  stages  of  world  con- 
quest; her  professors  patiently  explained  how  necessary 
all  this  was  to  Germany's  future;  while  her  theologians 
pointed  out  it  was  God's  will  But  the  world  at  large, 
except  uneasy  France,  slept  on. 

OUTWORKINGS  OF  THE  PLOT. 
It  was  this  vision  that  fired  the  imagination  of  Wil- 
liaTn  II.  He  was  to  be  the  Augustus  of  this  greater  Roman 
Empire;  over  virtually  all  the  earth  the  House  of  Hohen- 
zoUern  was  to  exercise  despotic  sway.  Then  began  prepa- 
ration for  the  World's  War.  With  characteristic  German 
thoroughness  and  patience  the  plans  were  laid.  Thorough- 
ness, since  they  embraced  every  conceivable  means  that 
would  enhance  their  prospect  of  victory,  her  military  lead- 
ers, scientists  and  statesmen  were  all  busy.  Patience,  since 
they  realized  there  was  much  to  do.  Many  years  were 
needed  and  Germany  refused  to  be  hurried.  She  carefully 
attended  to  every  means  calculated  to  increase  the  com- 
merce and  industry  of  the  empire,  but  with  it  all— under- 
lying it  all— were  activities  devoted  to  preparation  for 
world  conquest.  Building  for  world  empire,  Germany 
could  afford  to  take  time. 

PROBLEMS  TO  BE  SOLVED. 
Time  was  needed  to  solve  the  military  problems  in- 
volved.    A  nation  aspiring  to  territory  extending  from 
Hamburg   to   Bagdad   must   firmly    control   the   Balkan 
States.    That  meant  that  Austria  must  become,  in  effect, 


24  INTRODUCTORY. 

a  German  province;  Serbia  must  be  crushed;  Bulgaria 
must  become  an  ally;  and  Turkey  must  be  brought  under 
control.    In  1913,  two  of  these  desired  results  were  attained. 
Turkey  was  to  a  surprising  degree  under  the  nulitary  and 
economic  control  of  Germany.    Austria  had  become  such 
a  close  ally  that  she  might  almost  be  styled  a  vassal  of 
Germany.    She  faithfully  carried  out  the  wishes  of  Ger- 
many in  1908  when  she  annexed  the  Serbian  states  of 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovnia,  a  step  she  felt  safe  in  taking  since 
(the  Kaiser's  own  words)  behind  her  was  the  ''shining 
sword  of  Germany.''    It  were  tedious  to  enlarge  on  this 
point.    Let  it  suffice  to  say  that  in  1914  Germany  felt  her- 
self ready  for  the  conflict.    Enormous  supplies  of  guns, 
of  a  caliber  before  unthought  of,  and  apparently  inexhaust- 
ible supplies  of  ammunition  had  been  prepared;  strategic 
railroads  had  been  built  by  which  armies  and  supplies  could 
be  hurried  to  desired  points;  the  Kiel  Canal  had  been 
completed;  her  navy  had  assumed  threatening  proportions; 
her  army,  greatly  enlarged,  was  in  perfect  readiness. 

THE  REAL  CAUSES  OF  THE  WAR. 
The  real  cause  of  the  war  is  now  disclosed.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  discuss  other  possible  causes.  The  pistol  shot 
at  Serajevo  was  the  occasion,  not  the  cause  of  the  war. 
The  simple  fact  is  that  on  one  pretext  or  another  war  would 
have  come  anyway,  simply  because  Germany  was  ready. 
In  1913  the  speakers  of  the  Pan-German  League  were  go- 
ing to  and  fro  in  Germany  making  public  speeches  on  all 
possible  occasions,  warning  the  people  to  be  ready,  telling 
them  '^ There  was  the  smell  of  blood  in  the  air,"  that  the 
wrath  of  God  was  about  to  be  visited  upon  the  nations  that 
would  hem  Germany  in.  We  now  know  from  official  sources 
that  Germany  was  eager  for  war  in  the  fateful  days  of 
July  1914,  when  Prance  and  England  were  almost  beg- 


INTRODUCTORY.  25 

ging  for  peace.  All  this  is  made  exceedingly  clear  in  the 
secret  memoirs  of  Prince  Lichnowski,  German  ambassador 
to  England,  the  published  statements  of  the  premier  of 
Bavaria,  also  those  of  the  Prince  of  Monaco,  and  the  rec- 
ords of  the  Potsdam  council  over  which  the  Kaiser  pre- 
sided, secretly  convened  one  week  after  the  murder  of  the 
Prince.  There  were  present  the  generals,  diplomats  and 
bankers  of  Germany. 

DECISION  FOR  WAR. 

The  matter  of  possible  war  was  carefully  considered. 
To  the  earnest  question  of  the  emperor,  all  present  assured 
him  that  the  interests  they  represented  were  ready,  with 
the  exception  of  the  financiers  who  desired  two  weeks'  time 
in  which  to  make  financial  arrangements  for  the  coming 
storm.  This  was  given  them,  and  the  council  adjourned. 
The  emperor,  to  divert  suspicion,  hurried  off  on  a  yacht- 
ing trip  while  the  financiers  immediately  commenced  dis- 
posing of  their  foreign  securities.  The  stock  markets  of 
London,  Paris,  and  New  York  during  that  interval  of  time 
bear  eloquent  testimony  to  the  truth  of  these  assertions. 
Two  weeks  and  three  days  after  the  council  adjourned, 
Austria  sent  her  ultimatum  to  Serbia.  The  truth  of  these 
statements  is  vouched  for  by  Henry  Morgenthau,  Ameri- 
can ambassador  to  Turkey. 

Thus  were  unleashed  the  dogs  of  war.  ~^For  four  long 
years  they  rioted  in  blood.  To  advance  dynastic  ambitions 
and  national  greed,  millions  of  Armenian  Christians  were 
tortured,  outraged  and  murdered;  hapless  Belgians  were 
ravished  and  put  to  the  sword,  their  cities  made  charnal 
heaps ;  millions  of  men—the  fairest  sons  of  many  lands- 
gave  up  their  lives,  and  anguished  hearts  sobbed  out  their 
grief  in  desolated  homes,  while  generations  to  come  will 
feel  the  crushing  financial  burdens  this  struggle  has  en- 
tailed with  its  heritage  of  woe. 


^^  INTRODUCTORY. 

THE  WAR  BY  YEARS. 
We  must  now  gain  a  general  view  of  the  events  of  the 
war.    Every  well-informed  man  or  woman  feellthe  neces 
sity  of  such  outline  knowledge.    It  was  not  only  he  ^'eat 
est  war  m  history,  but  it  was  our  war.    Our  liberties^ere' 
threatened.    Eivers  and  hamlets  of  France  are    nvelted 
with  new  interest.    There,  our  American  boys  are  slee^l. 
hey  died  that  our  Eepublic  might  live.    We  may  reS 
the  annals  of  other  wars  with  languid  interest;  thoTe  of'tWs 
war  grip  our  hearts,  our  breath  comes  quicke^  as  we  read 
we  expenence  a  glow  of  patriotic  pride.    We  shall  let  each 
year  of  the  war  tell  its  story.    Of  necessity  we  can  on  y 
record  the  main  events,  the  peaks  of  each  gear's  achievl! 

EVENTS  OF  1914. 
31    lllf  *Vf  ""^l  was  declared  to  exist  in  Germany,  July 

!«; J         •  Jf^.'.  ^^^'"^  ^'™^"^  ^^d  «^«feiW  five 

krge  armies  with  full  supplies  on  the  extended  line  from 
Metz  northward  along  the  eastern  boundary  of  France- 
it  fi  'iSr*  '''  ™^^^-  T^^t  mobilization  was  a 
wonderful  exhibition  of  military  efficiency.  From  Verdun 
P^"s.  slightly  southwest,  is  also  about  130  miles 

.«  Jr  T""  ^l^""  ""^  campaign  may  be  crudely' stated 
as  follows :  Regard  that  extended  line  as  a  flail  ready  to 
fall,  hinged  near  Verdun,  moved  in  a  circle  until  the  north- 
em  tip,  under  command  of  Von  Kluck,  should  fall  with 
all  ae  energy  Germany  could  put  into  the  blow  on  Paris 

flit  i"f ".  ''.*^'  ^*^'^  ^"^^«  ^•'"I'i  <^rush  back,  out- 
flank defeat,  and  capture  the  small  British  and  hastily 
mobilized  French  armies  that  confronted  them  along  the 
entire  line.    It  was  believed  that  a  short  campaign  would 

the  West.  It  was  thought  that  six  weeks  would  be  ample 
to  accomplish  this  result. 


INTRODUCTORY.  27 

BELGIAN  RESISTANCE. 
Germany  expected  that  at  the  most  a  day  or  so  would 
see  Belgian  resistance  broken  and  the  dash  on  Paris  be- 
gun. It  was  not  safe  to  start  such  a  forward  rush  with 
Belgium  unconquered.  This  was  the  first  of  many,  many 
mistakes  made  by  Germany.  It  required  two  weeks  to 
break  down  this  resistance.  Thus  the  northern  end  of  the 
flail  was  held  and  movement  along  the  entire  line  was 
slowed  down  or  suspended.  The  unexpected  delay  saved 
France.  Let  us  remember  this  when  we  read  the  story 
of  Belgium's  martyrdom,  a  story  written  in  blood.  Then 
began  the  fulfillment  of  the  threat  of  William  II  to  the 
Prince  of  Monaco  ^Hhe  world  will  see  what  it  never 
dreamed  of."  And  truly  the  world  never  dreamed  of  the 
terrible  scenes  that  attended  the  sack  of  Louvain  (August 
26).  Not  until  after  the  situation  in  Belgium  had  been 
given  a  bloody  setting  did  the  first  dash  on  Paris  begin 
(August  23). 

RETREAT  TO  THE  MARNE. 

We  are  now  approaching  the  **  Miracle  of  the  Marne." 
The  line  of  German  armies  along  the  eastern  frontier  of 
France  were  confronted  by  the  forces  of  France,  hastily 
mobilized  during  the  delay  occasioned  by  the  heroic  but 
pathetically  futile  resistance  of  Belgium.  The  first  Eng- 
lish army  had  also  assumed  a  position  before  the  menac- 
ing rush  of  the  German  forces.  The  only  thing  the  Allies 
could  do  was  to  retreat.  This  movement,  directed  by  Gen- 
eral Joffre,  was  a  remarkably  able  one.  His  plan  was 
to  give  groimd  before  the  advance  without  risking  a  deci- 
sive battle  until  he  could  rearrange  his  forces  and  gain  a 
favorable  position.  Only  with  difficulty  was  the  retreat 
saved  from  becoming  a  great  disaster  when  the  British 
army  was  defeated  at  Mons-Charleroi  (August  21-3).  Ap- 
parently, the   German  forces  were   carrying  everything 


28 


INTRODUCTORY. 


before  them  as  the  retreat  continued.  The  flail,  swindn^ 
from  Metz  to  Belgium,  was  falling  with  crushinniecf 
a  ong  the  entire  front,  the  movement  being  very  rapid  a 

llTu^redtre  reaT  ^''  ''''  ''  '''''  ''^'  ^^^-^ 

THE  FIRST  BATTLE  OF  THE  MARNE. 
The  Marne  is  a  small  river  in  France,  gently  cours- 
mg  from  the  water-shed  south  of  Verdun  to  the  SeTe 
near  Pans,  its  general  course  convex  to  the  north.    It  will 
hereafter  rank  as  one  of  the  storied  rivers  of  history  the 
scene  of  mighty  battles,  where  the  red  tide  of  German  suc- 
cess ebbed  in  its  flow.     The  night  of  September  4    the 
German  armies  were  in  position  along  this  river  in  an 
irregularly  curved  line  slightly  convex  to  the  south  from 
a  point  only  twenty-five  miles  east  of  Paris  to  Verdun 
Tf      T.        '""^  twenty-five  miles,  slightly  to  the  north-' 
east.     The  evening  of  that  day,  General  Joffre  issued 
orders  for  a  general  attack  all  along  the  line     His  mes 
sage  to  the  French  Senate  was  couched  in  words  of  deep 
nieamng,-he  had  made,  he  said,  the  best  disposition  pos 

^n^^  IT.'^  '''"^'^  ^"'^  ^^^^t  in  hope  the  outcome.    The 
battle  that  began  the  next  day  continued  for  one  week  and 
ended  with  a  victory  for  the  Allies  as  the  German  armies 
were  forced  back  everywhere,  a  varying  distance,  to  a  line 
of  defense  prepared  back  of  the  Aisne  Eiver,  to  the  north 
and  east.    This  was  a  marvelous  result.    Just  as  the  world 
was  waitmg  with  bated  breath  to  hear  of  the  fall  of  Paris 
It  heard  instead,  that  the  German  army  was  in  retreat.' 
It  was  truly  a  miracle.    Why  not  see  in  it  proof  that  a 
Power  infinitely  greater  than  that  of  man  was  directing 


INTRODUCTORY.  29 

THE  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  BATTLE. 
The  battle  front  covered  a  distance  of  about  125  miles. 
The  forces  engaged  numbered  about  1,500,000  men.  Thus 
this  battle  far  exceeds  in  magnitude  the  battle  of  Mukden, 
previously  considered  the  greatest  battle  of  modern  times^; 
while  the  great  battle  of  Waterloo  was  an  insignificant 
skirmish  in  comparison.  It  is  of  further  interest  to  learn 
that  Allied  success  was  largely  the  result  of  the  use  of 
flying  machines  for  scouting  purposes,  which  enabled 
General  Joffre  to  take  instant  advantage  of  tactical  mis- 
takes of  General  Von  Kluck.  The  results  were  commen- 
surate with  the  immensity  of  the  struggle.  Paris  was 
saved;  the  first  period  of  the  war  in  the  west  was  ended; 
Germany  was  rudely  awakened  from  her  dream  of  easy 

conquest. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  TANNENBERG. 

The  success  of  the  Allies  in  the  west  was  in  a  measure 
offset  by  Teutonic  victories  in  the  east.  When  the  inva- 
sion of  Belgium  began,  Russia  made  immediate  efforts  to 
counteract  by  invasion  of  East  Prussia.  She  was  success- 
ful to  the  extent  of  drawing  to  that  section  a  number  of 
army  corps  that  would  otherwise  have  taken  part  in  the 
Marne  campaign.  These  movements  culminated  in  the 
battle  of  Tannenberg,  commencing  August  26,  1914.  Tan- 
nenberg  is  nearly  one  hundred  miles  southeast  of  Konigs- 
burg.  This  was  the  battle  that  gave  General  Von  Hinden- 
burg  his  fame.  He  was  a  native  of  East  Prussia,  and 
acquainted  mth  the  country,  but  had  lived  in  retirement 
for  some  years.  Appointed  to  command,  he  made  such  a 
skillful  disposition  of  his  troops  that  the  Russian  army 
was  virtually  annihilated,  less  than  one  corps  escaped 
by  headlong  flight.  According  to  German  authority,  70,000 
Russians  were  captured.  General  Von  Hinderburg  was 
acclaimed  the  greatest  soldier  of  the  day,  and  was  imme- 


^  INTEODUCTOET. 

diately  appointed  field  marshal  in  command  of  all  the 
German  forces  in  the  east. 

EVENTS  OF  1915. 

The  year  1915  was  one  of  meager  results,  the  advan- 
tages remaining  on  the  side  of  the  Central  Powers,  with 
this  understanding,   however:   The  Allies  were  growing 
stronger  because  Great  Britain  was  making  rapid  progress 
m  marshaling  her  resources  for  war.    On  the  west  ffont 
the  long  irregular  line  of  trenches,  from  Switzerland  on 
the  south  to  Ostend  on  the  North  Sea,  marking  the  Ger- 
man retreat  after  the  battle  of  the  Marne,  remained  with- 
out substantial  ichange.    Do  not  understand  there  were 
no  battles  along  that  extended  line.    Ahnost  daily  there 
were  conflicts  that  in  former  wars  would  have  been  given 
a  place  among  the  world's  great  battles.    They  are  scarcely 
worth  mentioning  in  the  annals  of  this  war.    Back  and 
forth  across  that  narrow  line  surged  the  red  tide  without 
decisive  changes  in  position.    There  were  attacks  and  coun- 
ter attacks  of  the  most  sanguinary  nature  near  Calais. 
The  first  instance  of  the  use  of  gas  in  war  occurred  in  these 
battles,  at  the  second  battle  of  Tpres,  Xpril  23,  1915. 

ON  THE  EAST  FRONT, 
In  spite  of  the  great  reverse  at  Tannenberg,  Russia 
was  not  defeated.    Her  armies  in  Galicia  (Northeastern 
Hungary)  were  winning  important  battles.    A  determined 
effort  was  made  in  1915  by  Germany  to  crush  Russia  and 
thus  retire  her  from  the  war.    For  days  at  a  time,  on  the 
railroads  of  East  Germany,  double  headed  trains  were 
passing  every  fifteen  minutes,  loaded  with  troops  and 
munitions  withdrawn  from  the  western  front  which  ac- 
counts for  the  comparative  quiet  in  that  section,  which  in 
turn  gave  Great  Britain  time  to  prepare  in  earnest.    And 


INTRODUCTORY.  31 

60  it  was  that  during  a  large  part  of  1915  Eussia  had  to 
withstand  the  shock  of  war.  Russian  soldiers  were  brave ; 
her  generals  able,  but  the  whole  official  life  was  more  or 
less  corrupt. 

The  poison  of  German  propaganda  was  at  work.  Her 
ammunition  was  totally  insufficient.  Immense  supplies 
made  in  France  according  to  specifications  furnished  by 
high  officials  in  Russia  did  not  fit  the  guns  they  were  in- 
tended to  serve.  There  were  already  signs  of  the  approach- 
ing utter  collapse  of  Russia  as  a  world  power,  then  more 
than  a  year  distant  in  time.  In  spite  of  these  drawbacks 
we  read  of  brilliant  but  futile  efforts  of  her  poorly 
equipped  army  to  stem  the  tide  of  Teutonic  success  that 
soon  began. 

Before  the  close  of  the  year  Poland  was  entirely  over- 
run by  German  forces.  It  seemed  for  a  time  as  if  Petro- 
grad  itself  must  fall.  In  short,  it  was  thought  that  Russia 
was  crushed.  Then  it  was  that  the  Kaiser  wrote  to  his 
sister,  the  Queen  of  Greece,  **  having  crushed  Russia,  the 
rest  of  Europe  will  soon  tremble  before  me."  But  when 
1915  ended  a  line  of  trenches  from  Riga  on  the  north  to 
Czemowitz  on  the  south  still  guarded  the  frontiers  of 
Russia. 

THE  DARDANELLES  CAMPAIGN. 

This  campaign  began  in  December,  1914,  and  con- 
tinued during  1915.  It  was  an  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
Allies  to  force  the  Dardanelles,  capture  Constantinople, 
and  inflict  a  crushing  blow  on  Turkey.  This  effort  was  a 
dismal  failure  for  the  Allies,  but  had  all  the  effect  of  a 
decisive  victory  for  Turkey  and  her  allies.  The  fact  that 
the  attack  was  failing  had  considerable  to  do  with  induc- 
ing Bulgaria  to  enter  the  war  on  the  side  of  Germany. 
The  immediate  result  of  this  step  on  the  part  of  Bulgaria 
was  the  complete  crushing  of  Serbia  (October  6-December 


32  INTRODUCTORY. 

2),  and  this  in  turn  made  possible  full  and  free  railroad 
transportation  between  Germany  on  the  north  and  Turkey 
on  the  south.  The  net  result  was  to  greatly  strengthen 
the  Teutonic  allies.  The  conduct  of  Turkey  in  the  war 
was  marked  by  most  atrocious  treatment  of  the  Armen- 
ians. Belgium  on  the  north,  Armenia  on  the  south,  are 
blood-stamed  chapters  in  the  annals  of  war. 

EVENTS  OF  1916. 
Apparently  believing  that  Russia  was  so  badly  crip- 
pled that  she  could  not  again  peril  Austria-Hungary  or 
wrest  Poland   from   the   grasp   of   Germany,   the   latter 
country  gathered  her  available  resources  for  a  decisive 
crushing  blow  in  France.     We  have  several  times  men- 
tioned Verdun.     It  is  well  to  study  its  location  on  the 
map,  about  130  miles  slightly  north  of  east  of  Paris.    It 
is  a  city  of  great  historic  interest,  beautifully  located  in 
the  Meuse  valley  with  its  approach  defended  by  low-lying 
ranges  of  hills  through  which  lead  numerous  defiles.    At 
this  city,  more  than  a  thousand  years  ago,  was  concluded 
the  celebrated  treaty  of  Verdun  that  settled  the  disputes 
between  the  grandsons  of  Charlemagne,  and  this  consti- 
tutes a  landmark  in  the  early  history  of  France. 

It  was  Verdun  that  held  back  the  southern  end  of  the 
flail  wherewith  Prance  was  to  be  crushed  in  1914;  in  the 
battle  of  the  Marne  it  held  the  eastern  or  left  wing  of  the 
long  German  line,  which  could  not  advance  and  leave 
Verdun  unsubdued  in  the  rear.  The  German  Crown  Prince 
was  in  command  near  Verdun.  His  ideal  was  Napoleon. 
His  private  library  contained  nearly  everything  ever 
written  about  that  great  general.  He  was  exceedingly 
anxious  to  pose  as  the  conqueror  of  France.  To  strengthen 
his  dynasty,  the  Kaiser  was  also  anxious  that  his  son 
should  take  a  prominent  part.    Accordingly  it  was  planned 


INTRODUCTOEY.  33 

to  gather  an  enormous  army  under  his  command,  over- 
whelm Verdun  and  smash  through  to  Paris.  Thus  Prince 
Wilhelm  would  be  enrolled  among  the  great  commanders 
of  history.  Von  Hindenburg  was  opposed  to  this  plan, 
he  wanted  to  finish  up  his  work  so  happily  begun  in 
Russia.  But  the  Crown  Prince  had  his  way ;  and  immense 
supplies  of  guns,  ammunition,  and  men  were  withdrawn 
from  the  eastern  front  and  massed  at  Verdun. 

THE  GREAT  BATTLE  OF  VERDUN. 

The  annals  of  history  record  no  battle  approaching 
in  duration,  artillery  fire,  and  awful  sacrifice  than  the  bat- 
tle that  enveloped  Verdun  for  six  months,  beginning  Feb- 
ruary 21,  1916.  Other  battles  have  been  fought  along 
more  extended  fronts  and  thus  engaged  larger  numbers 
of  troops;  but  none  ever  presented  in  a  more  acute  form 
the  issue  of  national  life  or  death.  The  stand  of  the  heroic 
Greeks  at  Thermoplae  denying  passage  to  the  hosts  of 
Persia  w^as  not  more  vital  to  the  cause  of  civilization  than 
this  storied  defense  of  Verdun.  The  reflective  writer  can 
but  notice  that  in  every  campaign  of  the  war,  when  fur- 
ther success  of  the  German  armies  meant  victory,  it  was 
as  if  an  unseen  Power  decreed  ''thus  far  and  no  further." 
It  was  so  at  Verdun.  The  French  soldier,  calmly  going 
to  death,  chanting  ''They  shall  not  pass,"  did  not  die  in 
vain. 

THE  BATTLE  ITSELF. 

The  French  were  taken  somewhat  by  surprise  as  they 
had  not  expected  such  an  early  attack  or  that  its  fury 
would  break  at  Verdun.  Of  course  it  was  known  that  a 
great  force  was  being  assembled,  but  no  one  dreamed  of 
the  enormous  concentration  of  guns  of  all  kinds  that  were 
made.  They  literally  cumbered  the  ground  and  the  shells 
assembled  were  in  keeping.     The  German  generals  were 


34  INTRODUCTORY. 

SO  confident  of  success  that  foreign  correspondents  were 
invited  to  be  present  to  witness  the  resistless  onslaught. 
The  evening  before  the  attack  began  there  was  a  banquet 
at  the  German  headquarters,  the  Kaiser  and  all  his  not- 
able generals  (but  not  Von  Hindenburg)  were  present. 
The  toast  was  ^^ After  four  days,  Verdun;  then  Paris." 
They  estimated  that  it  would  take  possibly  three  weeks  to 
accomplish  their  ends.  Evidently  among  the  uninvited 
and  imseen  guests  were  Defeat  and  Death. 

The  attack  that  commenced  the  next  day  lasted  with 
but  slight  interruptions  until  October.  It  is  interesting 
to  remark  that  more  shot  and  shell  were  used  in  this  battle 
than  the  total  used  during  the  four  years  of  the  Civil  War 
in  America  on  both  sides.  Verdun  itself  was  reduced  to 
ruins.  Considerable  portions  of  the  fortified  area  to  the 
north  of  Verdun  were  captured,  including  the  important 
forts  Douamont  and  Vaux,  but  the  entire  attack  failed. 
The  minor  successes  achieved  w^ere  won  with  an  appalling 
loss  of  life  and  were  easily  retaken  by  the  French  later 
in  the  fall.  Verdun  was  renamed  by  the  German  soldiers 
as  ^^The  Grave,''  and  such  it  truly  was  to  the  hopes  of 
victory  and  peace  that  inspired  the  toast  at  the  Verdun 
banquet. 

CONQUEST  OF  ROUMANIA 

Roumania  is  one  of  the  Balkan  States.  Her  entry 
into  the  second  Balkan  war  in  1913  was  one  of  the  deci- 
sive factors  against  Bulgaria.  After  the  entry  of  Bulgaria 
into  the  World  War  in  1915  the  pressure  became  very 
strong  on  Eoumania  by  Russia  to  come  into  the  war  on 
the  side  of  the  Allies.  The  summer  of  1916  Russia  had 
reorganized  her  forces,  and  the  war  in  the  west  was  going 
against  Germany  at  Verdun  and  along  the  Somme.  This 
was  deemed  an  opportune  time  for  Roumania  to  enter  the 
war  and  so,  with  no  principles  at  stake,  Roumania  declared 


INTRODUCTOBY.  8§ 

war  on  jiustria,  August  27,  1916.  The  response  of  Ger- 
many and  Bulgaria  to  this  new  menace  was  prompt  and 
decisive.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  Eoumania  was 
crushed,  the  capital  city,  Bucharest,  was  taken.  Eoumania 
was  not  at  all  prepared  to  wage  war  on  the  scale  this  war 
had  assumed,  but  the  immediate  cause  of  her  easy  con- 
quest was  the  failure  of  Russia  to  keep  her  promises  of 
assistance.  Russia,  undermined  by  German  intrigue,  with 
traitors  at  court,  was  already  tottering  to  her  falL 

EVENTS  OF  1917. 
The  year  1917  witnessed  startling  changes  in  the  group* 
ing  of  the  belligerent  powers.  The  three  largest  republics 
in  the  world— China,  Brazil,  and  the  United  States,— were 
drawn  into  the  war  on  the  side  of  the  Entente  Allies. 
Other  small  nations,  members  of  the  Pan-American  Union, 
joined  with  the  United  States  in  this  action.  Other  South 
American  nations  showed  their  sympathy  with  the  United 
States  by  severing  diplomatic  relations  with  Germany. 
In  Europe,  Greece  made  a  formal  declaration  of  war  July 
2,  1917.  Thus  all  of  the  Balkan  States  were  finally  in- 
volved. To  complete  the  record,  we  must  note  that  Siam 
in  Asia  and  Liberia  in  Africa  also  joined  the  Entente 
Allies.  Never  before  in  history  had  there  been  such  an 
alignment  of  nations  for  purposes  of  war.  It  was  signifi- 
cant of  one  thing,— growing  resentment  against  what  had 
long  been  recognized  as  the  criminal  ambitions  pf  Ger- 
many to  dominate  the  world. 

THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  WAR. 

April  6,  1917,  will  hereafter  be  one  of  the  most  im- 

portant  dates  in  the  annals  of  this  republic.    Then  it  was 

that  Congress  in  a  joint  resolution  declared  a  state  of  war 

existed  between   the  United   States   and   Germany,   and 


36  INTRODUCTORY. 

authorized  the  President  to  employ  the  naval  and  military- 
power  of  our  country  to  carry  on  the  war  and  pledged 
all  our  resources  to  that  end.  We  can  now  see  that  the 
hidden  currents  of  national  destiny  were  tending  in  an 
irresistible  way  to  war  on  the  part  of  the  United  States. 
Every  consideration  of  national  safety  and  every  prin- 
ciple that  we  hold  dear,  demanded  that  we  should  re- 
spond to  the  call  of  the  President  to  arms.  Then  com- 
menced the  wonderful  preparations  for  war  on  the  part 
of  the  United  States.  Official  Germany  in  conversation 
with  Minister  Gerard,  before  the  rupture  of  diplomatic 
relations,  laughed  to  scorn  the  thought  that  the  United 
States  could  render  any  military  aid  worth  considering 
to  her  allies.  Germany  in  the  fall  of  1917  was  not 
laughing. 

THE  COLLAPSE  OF  RUSSIA. 

The  collapse  of  Russia  was  the  second  great  event  of 
1917.  It  was  the  result  of  a  long  train  of  causes.  Let  it 
suffice  to  say  that  treachery  in  high  places  backed  by 
German  propaganda,  had  undermined  the  government. 
March  15,  1917,  the  storm  broke.  The  utter  overthrow  of 
autocratic  rule  in  Eussia  was  one  of  those  explosive  out- 
breaks, but  few  of  which  have  occurred  in  history.  In  a 
single  day  the  old  order  of  government  passed  away  never 
to  return  in  Eussia.  It  was  a  revolution  as  thorough- 
going as  its  prototype,  the  French  revolution  of  1789,  and 
it  soon  developed  equal  scenes  of  horror.  After  some 
months  of  struggle,  the  government  of  Eussia  passed  under 
the  control  of  the  Bolsheviki  and  anarchy  followed,  out- 
doing the  scenes  of  the  French  commune.  The  immediate 
effect  on  the  war  was  to  retire  Eussia  from  the  conflict, 
thus  releasing  a  large  army  and  its  supplies  for  service 
elsewhere. 


INTRODUCTORY.  37 

THE  ITALIAN  REVERSE. 
Having  achieved  such  signal  successes  in  the  east,  Eus- 
sia  and  Eoumania  being  both  disposed  of,  the  German 
leaders  planned  a  campaign  designed  to  crush  Italy.  In 
the  smnmer  of  1917  the  Italian  front  was  along  the  Isonza 
Eiver  in  Austrian  territory.  The  test  of  Italian  endur- 
ance was  at  hand.  A  great  force  of  Austrians  and  Ger- 
mans was  assembled  along  the  river.  As  was  usual  in  all 
Teutonic  drives,  endeavors  were  made  by  propaganda 
work  to  break  down  the  morale  of  the  Italian  troops.  This 
effort  consisted  in  spreading  fearsome  accounts  of  the 
crushing  nature  of  the  blow  about  to  fall,  the  folly  of 
further  resistance,  and  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by 
accepting  the  generous  terms  of  peace  their  true  friends 
—their  former  allies— were  ready  to  grant.  This  effort 
had  an  effect,  but  Italy  was  not  Eussia. 

The  drive  began  October  24th.  It  was  a  very  pro- 
nounced Teutonic  success,  though  the  great  object  of  the 
drive  was  not  achieved.  In  three  weeks'  time  the  Italians 
were  forced  back  from  the  Isonza  to  the  Piava  Eiver  line ; 
nearly  200,000  soldiers  had  been  captured,  together  with 
immense  supplies  of  all  kinds.  But  yet  Italy  was  not 
crushed,  the  German  forces  were  firmly  held  along  the 
Piava.  We  should  reflect  that  in  the  World  War  millions 
were  engaged  and  the  loss  of  one  or  even  two  hundred 
thousand  men  did  not  mean  the  end  of  the  war. 

EVENTS  OF  1918. 

The  Allies  could  only  hope  to  defend  their  position  on 
the  west  front  against  the  impending  offensive  on  the  part 
of  Germany,  for  which  preparations  on  a  vast  scale  were 
being  made,  until  reinforcements  from  the  United  States 
could  reach  them  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  take  the  of- 
fensive in  their  turn.    Germany  hastened  its  preparations 


38  INTRODIJCTOEY. 

through  the  winter  months  of  1917-18,  for  they  knew  they 
must  win  a  decisive  victory  to  crush  the  armies  of  France 
and  England  before  the  United  States  could  give  efficient 
assistance.  It  was  a  race  between  America  and  Germany, 
and  America  won.  With  the  assistance  of  the  British  and 
French  merchant  marine  and  such  shipping  as  could  be 
procured  at  home  the  American  forces  were  landed  in 
France  in  the  most  astonishing  numbers  ever  recorded. 
The  fears  of  Germany,  the  hopes  of  the  Allies  were  alike 
exceeded  by  the  forces  sent  across  the  ocean.  The  first  of 
July,  1918,  there  were  one  million  American  soldiers  in 
France.    They  came  just  in  time  to  avert  disaster. 

GERMAN  OFFENSIVE  IN  1918. 

The  initiative  was  with  Germany,  and  the  German 
command  selected  the  British  army  in  position  along  the 
Scarpe  Eiver,  north  of  Cambria,  to  the  Oise  Eiver— a  dis- 
tance of  sixty  miles— as  the  object  of  the  first  drive.  The 
assault  began  the  morning  of  March  21,  1918.  Along  the 
entire  front  the  artillery  fire  that  opened  the  drive  was 
on  the  scale  never  before  approached  in  war.  More  than 
one  million  men,  the  choicest  troops  of  Germany,  were 
ready  to  assault  the  British  lines  and  they  came  on,  wave 
after  wave,  and  Germany  came  perilously  near  success  in 
her  efforts  to  break  through  the  British  lines.  The  British 
were  driven  back  beyond  the  lines  of  the  battle  of  the 
Somme  in  1916,  important  towns  were  captured,  but  their 
lines  still  held.  The  first  phase  of  the  great  battle— known 
in  history  as  the  battle  of  Picardy— was  a  defeat  to  Ger- 
man hopes. 

WHEN  THE  AMERICANS  CAME. 

From  the  opening  of  the  great  offense  of  March  21, 
1918,  to  the  signing  of  the  armistice,  November  11,  1918, 
there  were  few  days  when  there  were  not  battles  raging 


INTRODUCTORY.  39 

at  several  places  along  the  west  front  extending  from  near 
Metz  in  a  prolonged  sweep,  west  to  Rheims,  thence  in  an 
irregular  curved  line  convex  toward  Paris  curving  to  the 
North   Sea  near  Dixmude   approximately  250   miles   in 
length.    There  were  days  and  weeks  when  battles  of  great 
intensity  raged  at  certain  sections,  then  died  away  in  that 
vicmity  to  break  in  fury  elsewhere.    Organized  efforts  on 
a  large  scale  in   certain   directions   were   called   drives. 
Until  July  the  initiative  was  with  Germany,  that  is  to  sny 
the  Allies  were  on  the  defensive.    They  were  waiting  fs-i 
reinforcements  from  America.    Germany  was  making  des- 
perate efforts  to  win  a  decisive  victory  and  force  peace  on 
their  terms  before  effective  aid  could  arrive. 

TWO  HUNDRED  AND  FIFTY  MILES  OF  BATTLE. 

At  this  point  try  to  realize  what  these  statements  im- 
ply. We  do  not  grasp  their  meaning.  A  battle  front  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  miles!  And  along  that  line  at  least 
ten  million  men  were  facing  each  other  with  other  mil- 
lions m  reserve.  Trench  lines  were  strung  along  most  of 
the  front.  Not  simply  one  line  of  trenches,  but  several, 
with  connecting  trenches,  the  opposing  lines  being  at  places 
only  a  few  hundred  yards  apart.  As  the  struggle  con- 
tinued, however,  it  became  more  and  more  a  war  in  the 
open. 

This  series  of  struggles  are  undoubtedly  the  greatest 
exertion  of  military  power  in  the  history  of  the  world 
Never  before  had  such  masses  of  munitions  been  used- 
never  before  had  scientific  knowledge  been  so  drawn  on 
in  the  service  of  war.  Thousands  of  airplanes  were  pa- 
trolhng  the  air,  sometimes  scouting,  sometimes  dropping 
bombs  on  hostile  troops  or  on  hostile  stores,  sometimes 
flying  low,  firing  their  machine  guns  into  the  faces  of 
marching  troops.     Thousands  upon  thousands   of  great 


40  INTRODUCTORY. 

guns  were  sending  enormous  projectiles,  which  made  great 
pits  wherever  they  fell.  Swarms  of  machine  guns  were 
pouring  their  bullets  like  water  from  a  hose  upon  charg- 
ing soldiers.  It  was  an  inferno  such  as  Dante  never 
dreamed  of.  The  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  history  of 
which  we  have  heard— all  put  together,— were  exceeded 
day  after  day  in  the  summer  of  1918  when  Germany  was 
making  her  last  desperate  effort.  Thus  for  weeks  the  red 
tide  of  war  ebbed  and  flowed,  while  civilization  trembled 
in  the  balance. 

UNIFIED  COMMAND. 

It  was  clearly  seen  by  the  Allied  leaders  that  appoint- 
ing a  generalissimo  to  command  all  their  forces  was  a 
necessity.  This  command  was  given  to  General  Ferdinand 
Foch,  who  had  won  fame  in  the  battle  of  the  Marne  and 
who  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  greatest  strategists  of 
the  day.  Events  soon  demonstrated  the  wisdom  of  this 
step.  No  general  ever  commanded  such  armies  as  he. 
Napoleon,  Von  Moltke,  Grant  and  Lee  were  great  generals, 
but  everything  connected  with  this  war  was  on  a  scale 
never  before  approached,  and  we  can  say  that  the  quali- 
ties of  leadership  displayed  by  Marshal  Foch  were  nec- 
essarily on  a  higher  plane  of  action— and  we  can  say  this 
without  in  the  least  detracting  from  the  just  fame  of  other 
Allied  commanders— as  Pershing,  Haig,  Allenby,  Diaz  and 
others.  When  the  war  opened,  Germany  had  much  to  say 
about  her  unconquerable  army;  her  generals  were  supposed 
to  be  superior  in  a  military  way  to  any  others.  The  war 
showed  that  other  soldiers  were  just  as  brave,  other  gen- 
erals just  as  able.  The  fetish  of  German  military  invinci- 
bility was  early  overthrown. 

AMERICAN  ASSISTANCE. 

No  American  can  read  the  story  of  the  part  America 
took  in  the  war  without  experiencing  a  glow  of  patriotic 


INTRODUCTORY.  41 

feeling.  Ever j  Allied  nation  can  say  the  same  thing.  We 
came  late  into  the  struggle,  but  no  nation  in  history  ever 
made  such  wonderful  preparation  for  war  as  did  our  coun- 
try in  the  eighteen  months  that  elapsed  from  the  declara- 
tion of  war  to  the  signing  of  the  armistice.  Our  prepa- 
rations in  France,  representing  only  a  part  of  our  total 
effort,  were  on  such  an  enormous  scale,  that  neutral  na- 
tions—as Sweden  and  Spain— sent  trusted  officials  to 
investigate  if  it  were  possibly  true  that  America  was  mak- 
ing such  colossal  preparations;  could  it  be  that  men  by 
the  hundreds  of  thousands  were  disembarking  on  Euro- 
pean soil  every  week?  Were  such  forces  drilled?  Were 
supplies  sent  them?  It  was  almost  unbelievable.  Surely, 
it  must  be  American  brag.  They  came,  they  saw,  they 
departed  convinced  but  in  bewildered  wonderment.  It 
was  the  slowly  growing  realization  of  what  this  prepara- 
tion meant  that  spurred  Germany  on  during  the  early 
summer  of  1918.  But  it  was  too  late.  Already  the  hand- 
writing of  defeat  was  outlining  in  letters  of  fire  on  the 
wall. 

AGAIN  THE  MARNE. 
May  27,  1918,  the  Germans  opened  a  drive  towards 
Paris.  It  resulted  in  a  deep  bulge  in  the  line  from  Rheims 
west  to  Soissons,  once  more  the  German  line  in  that  sec- 
tion had  reached  the  Marne.  It  was  a  time  of  great 
anxiety  in  the  Allied  world.  The  German  tide  was  rolling 
on  about  seven  miles  a  day  toward  Paris  about  fifty  miles 
distant  to  the  southwest.  The  German  commanders  felt 
sure  of  success  and  were  talking  about  the  ^^  strong  Ger- 
man peace"  they  would  enforce.  The  war  minister  assured 
the  Reichstag  that  they  must  exact  at  least  $50,000,000,000 
as  indemnity,  while  their  economic  writers  devised  an  elab- 
orate plan  whereby  all  the  trade  of  the  world  was  to  pay 


42  INTEODUCTOBY, 

tribute  to  Germany.    It  was  another  ease  of  ^'Thus  far 
and  BO  farther/' 

CHATEAU  THIERRY. 
Chatean  Thierry  was  a  thriving  city,  about  6,000  in 
population,  on  the  Marne  River,  approximately  50  miles 
northeast  of  Paris.  It  is  in  a  fertile  valley.  There  amid 
fields  of  ripening  wheat  the  advancing  troops  of  Germany 
were  suddently  confronted  by  American  marines,  hurried 
to  the  scene  of  action  in  motor  driven  vehicles  of  all  de- 
scriptions from  Paris.  The  forces  that  faced  them,  bent 
on  forcing  a  passage  to  Paris  were  composed  of  the  best 
Prussian  guards  and  shock  troops.  They  felt  perfectly 
confident  they  could  drive  the  Americans  back.  But  the 
amateurs  went  into  the  battle  (the  afternoon  of  June  2) 
as  calmly  as  if  going  to  drill  on  the  parade  ground.  In- 
stead of  being  driven  from  the  field  they  repulsed  the 
seasoned  veterans  of  Germany.  It  was  at  a  cruel  loss  to 
themselves,  1,600  dead,  2,500  wounded  out  of  8,000  that 
came  from  Paris  on  that  journey  of  victory  and  death; 
but  they  never  faltered.  This  was  not  a  battle  of  great 
dimensions  but  it  is  among  the  most  important  battles  of 
the  war.  It  saved  Paris;  but  that  is  not  all.  When  the 
news  of  that  battle  was  flashed  up  and  down  the  west  front, 
not  an  Allied  f-orce  but  was  thrilled,  enthused,  given  new 
courage;  the  message  that  the  Americans  had  stopped  the 
Germans  at  Chateau  Thierry,  electrified  Paris.  Strong 
men  wept  as  they  realized  that  the  forces  of  the  Great 
Republic,  able  and  brave,  stood  between  France  and  the 
ravening  wolf  of  Germany. 

OTHER  VICTORIES. 
Tn  the  limited  space  at  our  command  we  can  only 
give  a  general  description  of  the  remaining  weeks  of  war- 
fare   in    which   American    forces    participated.      Before 


INTRODUCTORY.  43 

advancing  at  Chateau  Thierry  the  Germans  had  fortified 
their  position  in  Belleau  Woods  which  they  had  previously 
occupied.  In  the  black  recesses  of  this  woods  they  estab- 
lished nest  after  nest  of  machine  guns  and  in  the  jungle 
of  matted  underbrush,  of  vines,  of  heavy  foliage  they  had 
placed  themselves  in  a  position  they  believed  impregnable. 
The  battle  of  Chateau  Thierry  was  not  rendered  secure 
until  the  Germans  were  driven  from  Belleau  Woods.  And 
so  for  the  next  three  weeks  the  battle  of  Belleau  Woods 
raged.  Fighting  day  after  day  without  relief,  without 
sleep,  often  without  water,  and  for  days  without  hot  ra- 
tions, the  marines  met  and  defeated  the  best  divisions 
Germany  could  throw  into  the  line.  According  to  official 
decree  in  France  the  name  of  that  woods  is  now  ''Woods 
of  the  American  Brigade."  In  September,  came  the  won- 
derful work  of  reducing  the  St.  Mihiel  salient  to  the  south 
and  to  the  east  of  Verdun,  a  German  wedge  that  had  with- 
stood every  effort  to  drive  it  back  for  four  years.  We 
can  only  mention  the  series  of  battles  that  took  place  in 
the  Forest  of  the  Argonne.  ^Vhen  the  armistice  was  de- 
clared American  forces  had  fought  their  way  to  Sedan. 
That  was  the  place  that  witnessed  the  deep  humiliation  of 
France  in  the  war  of  1870  with  which  the  German  Empire 
began.  Germany  was  only  saved  from  a  deeper  humilia- 
tion near  Sedan  in  this  war  that  ended  that  empire,  by 
the  prompt  signing  of  the  armistice. 

THE  DOWNFALL  OF  TURKEY. 
We  must  notice  even  in  a  hurried  review  of  the  war 
the  downfall  of  Turkey,  the  release  of  ancient  Mesopo- 
tamia, Palestine,  and  large  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  and  free- 
ing the  ancient  Christian  nation  of  Armenia  from  the 
dreadful  despotism  of  Turkish  misrule.  It  is  impossible 
to  go  into  the  details  of  the  successive  movements  lead- 


44  INTRODUCTORY. 

ing  to  this  happy  result.  The  forces  of  Great  Britain, 
under  command  of  General  Maud,  later  General  Allenby, 
must  be  given  the  credit.  "We  must  not  forget  that  Meso- 
potamia was  the  cradle  land  of  early  civilization.  There 
are  the  plains  of  Shinar,  there  are  the  ruins  of  Babylon 
and  Nineveh.  Now,  that  Turkish  rule  has  been  over- 
thrown, we  may  look  to  see  that  entire  country  once  more 
a  scene  of  smiling  fertility. 

And  consider  the  case  of  Palestine,  the  land  of  Biblical 
history,  the  home  of  Abraham,  and  the  scene  of  Old  Testa- 
ment activities;  finally  there  is  the  land  forever  hallowed 
by  the  ministrations  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  It  was  the 
goal  of  the  religious  wars  of  the  Crusades.  For  more 
than  six  centuries  it  groaned  under  Turkish  misrule.  The 
tide  of  British  success  began  in  1917.  In  December  of  that 
year  (9th)  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  British  forces 
under  command  of  General  Allenby.  During  1918  all 
Palestine  was  freed.  September  20,  1918,  Nazareth,  the 
boyhood  home  of  Jesus,  was  taken.  The  future  of  Pales- 
tine with  its  wealth  of  Biblical  history  is  a  wonderful 
theme  for  contemplation.  Given  the  blessings  of  a  twen- 
tieth century  government  there  is  no  reason  why  Palestine 
should  not  once  more  become  a  land  ^^  flowing  with  milk 
and  honey. '^ 

THE  APPROACHING  END. 

The  ending  of  the  war  was  almost  as  dramatically 
sudden  as  its  beginning.  As  late  as  July  15,  1918,  accord- 
ing to  statements  of  German  leaders,  they  still  believed 
they  were  to  be  successful;  less  than  four  months  later 
at  Senlis,  France,  their  representatives  signed  an  armis- 
tice, the  terms  of  which  were  the  most  drastic  and  humili- 
ating ever  inflicted  on  a  prominent  nation ;  while  the  Kaiser 
and  Crown  Prince  had  fled  for  safety  to  Holland,  a  nation 
ihey  had  asserted  existed  only  by  the  long  sufferance  of 


INTRODUCTORY.  45 

Germany.  Before  the  fatal  day  (November  11,  1918)  of 
the  armistice—like  the  falling  of  a  house  of  cards— had 
occurred  a  succession  of  abject  surrenders,  as  one  by  one 
of  the  nations  composing  the  Teutonic  Alliance  had  fallen 
before  the  crushing  blows  of  the  Entente  forces. 

The  middle  of  July  the  great  German  offensive  was 
held.  It  was  expected  by  the  German  leaders  that,  as  in 
the  past,  there  would  now  ensue  a  period  of  comparative 
quiet  along  the  west  front  during  which  Germany  could 
rearrange  her  forces,  perhaps  to  open  an  attack  elsewhere. 
Marshal  Foch— ably  seconded  by  General  Pershing  and 
General  Haig— thought  differently.  There  were  one  mil- 
lion American  soldiers  on  the  fighting  line,  other  millions 
were  coming.  Great  Britain  had  thrown  into  France  her 
reserve  army  held  in  England  to  meet  unforeseen  emer- 
gencies. Then  was  the  time  to  begin  a  counter-attack. 
Accordingly,  just  as  a  German  official  was  explaining  to 
the  Reichstag  that  General  Foch  had  no  reserves  to  with- 
stand a  fresh  onslaught  that  Germany  would  soon  begin, 
—the  blow  fell.  A  great  counter-attack  was  initiated  by 
the  French  and  Americans  along  the  Marne-Aisne  front 
July  18,  1918. 

THE  ALLIES  TAKE  THE  INITIATIVE. 
From  that  day  to  the  signing  of  the  armistice  the  in- 
itiative remained  with  General  Foch.  Up  and  down  the 
long  line,  now  here,  now  there ;  the  British  and  Belgians 
on  the  north,  the  French  and  Americans  on  the  south,  first 
one,  then  the  other,  then  together,  the  Allies  drove  for- 
ward with  hammer  blows  on  the  yielding  German  armies. 
That  subtle  force,  so  hard  to  define,  the  morale  of  the 
invaders,  was  broken  down.  Their  confidence  was  gone. 
They  knew  they  were  defeated.  The  one  hope  of  their 
leaders  was  to  get  safely  back  to  Germany,  and  soon  a 


46  INTRODUCTORY. 

general  retreat  was  in  progress.  But  to  remove  armies 
aggregating  several  million  men,  with  guns  and  supplies, 
from  a  contracted  area,  in  the  face  of  a  victorious  and 
aggressive  enemy,  without  the  retreat  degenerating  into 
a  rout  is  almost  impossible ;  it  requires  generalship  of  high- 
est order.  Day  by  day  the  remorseless  jaws  of  the  Allied 
military  machine,  hinged  to  the  north  of  the  Aisne,— Brit- 
ish and  Belgian  forces  on  the  north,  French  in  the  center, 
Americans  on  the  south  and  east,— were  closing,  and  when 
the  American  forces  fought  their  way  through  the  Argonne 
to  Sedan  (forty  miles  northeast  of  Rheims)  the  case  was 
hopeless.  Only  the  armistice  saved  Germany  from  the 
humiliation  of  a  surrender,  on  a  scale  vastly  greater  than 
the  surrender  of  the  French  armies  near  that  same  point 
in  1870. 

THE  COLLAPSE  OF  THE  TEUTONIC  ALLIES. 

With  Germany  herself  falling,  it  is  not  strange  that 
the  nations  leagued  with  her  also  went  down  to  defeat. 
They  had  been  almost  forced  into  the  war  by  Germany; 
not  one  of  them  could  carry  on  a  war  when  deprived  of 
counsel  and  help  from  Germany.  Only  the  threat  of  force 
kept  Austria  in  the  war.  As  the  counter-attack  in 
France  gained  in  force,  as  the  retreat  continued,  it  was 
recognized  on  all  hands  that  the  end  was  approaching. 
The  will  to  war— the  morale— was  completely  broken  down; 
and  so  on  every  side  the  Allied  forces  gained  great  vic- 
tories vdth  surprising  ease. 

Bulgaria  was  the  first  nation  to  surrender.  This  was 
the  conclusion  of  a  succession  of  great  victories  beginning 
September  16, 1918,  ending  by  the  surrender  ten  days  later. 
The  case  with  Turkey  was  hopeless  after  Bulgaria  fell. 
No  reinforcements  or  supplies  could  reach  them  from  Ger- 
many.   The  English  forces  under  General  Allenby  were 


INTEODUCTORY.  47 

carrying  everything  before  them.  Turkey  surrendered 
October  31,  1918,  Austria-Hungary  was  the  third  power 
to  surrender.  This  came  as  the  culmination  of  one  of  the 
greatest  drives  of  the  war. 

GREAT  ITALIAN  VICTORY. 

In  1917— as  we  have  seen,— Italy  suffered  a  great 
reverse,  losing  200,000  soldiers  and  immense  supplies.  In 
August,  1918,  Austria  renewed  the  attack.  In  his  procla- 
mation to  his  soldiers,  the  Austrian  commander  bade  them 
remember  '^the  white  bread,  the  fat  cattle,  the  wine"  and 
supplies  they  had  won  the  year  before.  Surely  as  great 
rewards  awaited  them  this  time,  and  learned  professors 
assured  them  and  the  entire  nation  that  they  belonged  to 
a  ^^ conquering  superior  race''  and  so  could  be  confident  of 
further  victory.  The  drive  was  a  ** hunger  offensive"  on 
the  part  of  hard-pressed  Austria.  It  was  a  dismal  failure. 
It  is  interesting  to  know  that  American  airplanes,  piloted 
by  Americans,  rendered  great  assistance  in  repulsing  this 
attack.  Then  came  the  counter-attack.  In  this  drive 
American  forces  assisted.  The  drive  began  October  27th; 
it  was  attended  by  a  series  of  most  astonishing  victories. 
The  drive  culminated  in  the  abject  surrender  of  Austria, 
November  3,  1918.  The  victories  can  only  be  explained 
by  the  fact  that  the  morale  of  the  Austrian  troops  had 
completely  broken  down,  more  than  500,000  prisoners  being 
taken,  together  with  enormous  supplies. 

THE  GERMAN  ARMISTICE. 

With  their  armies  perilously  near  route  on  the  west- 
ern front,  with  a  great  military  disaster  confronting  them, 
with  everyone  of  her  allies  forced  to  surrender,  with  revo- 
lution threatening  at  home,  there  was  nothing  left  for 
(Germany  to  do  but  to  make  the  best  terms  possible.    Their 


48  INTRODUCTORY.  / 

commissioners  met  General  Foch  at  Senlis  and  the  drastic 
armistice  terms  were  signed  at  5  o'clock,  Paris  time,  the 
morning  of  November  11,  1918,  and  the  last  shots  in  the 
war  were  fired  at  11  o'clock,  that  forenoon,  Paris  time. 
The  war  had  lasted  (from  the  date  of  the  declaration  of 
war  on  Serbia)  four  years,  three  months  and  thirteen  days. 
On  subsequent  pages  we  shall  consider  more  in  detail  this 
skeletonized  story,  study  the  enormous  political,  geographic 
and  economic  changes  it  has  necessitated,  and  mentally 
view  the  new  age  in  history  at  hand. 


Copyright  Underwood  &  Underwood 

PRESIDENT  WOODROW  WILSON. 

President  Wilson's  latest  photograph. 


Copyright  Underwood  &  Underwood 
GENERAL  JOHN  J.  PERSHING. 
This  13  the  latest  and  best  photograph  of  General  Pershing. 


Copyright  Underwood  &  Underwood 


MARSHAL  FERDINAND  FOCH. 

This  is  the  latest  photograph  of  Marshal  Ferdinand  Foch,  Supreme  Commander  of  the  Allied 
Armies,  as  he  appears  since  the  termination  of  the  war.  A  comparison  of  this  photograph  with 
earlier  ones  shows  the  effect  of  the  war  on  the  famous  general. 


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©  I. 


SERGT.  HENRY  JOHNSON,   OP  ALBANY,  N.  Y.,  THE  OUTSTANDING  HERO. 
Single-handed  he  routed  36  Huns,  killing-  4  of  them  and  wounding  the  remainder 
When  his  ammunition  ran  out  he  used  a  bolo    knife.       Sergt.    Johnson,    of    the    3b9th 
Colored   Infantry    (old   15th  of  N.   Y.).   was  the  first  man  in  his  regiment  to  win  ttie 
French  War  Cross. 


From  U.  &  U. 


©  Com.  Pub.  Inf. 


LIEUTENANT  ROBERT  S.   CAMPBELL,  U.   S.  ARMY. 
The  first  man  in  the   92nd  American  Division    (Negroes)    to    receive    the    dis- 
tinguished  service  cross   for  bravery   in   the   'fighting   in   the    Argonne.      He    was   a 
member  of  Co,  I,  368th  Infantry. 


CHAPTER  11. 

General  Pershing's  Own  Story  of  the  Victorious 
American  Army. 

Obganization  of  His  Genebal  Staff— Training  in  Feance — In  the  Aiso2E  Of- 
fensive— At  Chateau  Thierry — The  St.  Mihiel  Salient — Meuse-Argonne, 
First  Phaser— The  Battle  in  the  Forest — Summary. 

THIS  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  organization  and  opera- 
tions of  the  American  Expeditionary  Force  from  May 

26,  1917,  until  the  signing  of  the  armistice,  November 
11, 1918.  Immediately  upon  receiving  my  orders  I  selected 
a  small  staff  and  proceeded  to  Europe  in  order  to  become 
familiar  with  conditions  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 

The  warmth  of  our  reception  in  England  and  France 
was  only  equaled  by  the  readiness  of  the  commanders  in 
chief  of  the  veteran  armies  of  the  Allies  and  their  staffs 
to  place  their  experience  at  our  disposal.  In  consultation 
with  them  the  most  effective  means  of  co-operation  of 
effort  was  considered.  With  French  and  British  armies 
at  their  maximum  strength,  and  all  efforts  to  dispossess 
the  enemy  from  his  firmly  intrenched  positions  in  Belgium 
and  France  failed,  it  was  necessary  to  plan  for  an  Ameri- 
can force  adequate  to  turn  the  scale  in  favor  of  the  Allies. 
Taking  account  of  the  strength  of  the  Central  Powers  at 
that  time,  the  immensity  of  the  problem  which  confronted 
us  could  hardly  be  over-estimated.  The  first  requisite  be- 
ing an  organization  that  could  give  intelligent  direction 
to  effort,  the  formation  of  a  General  Staff  occupied  my 
early  attention. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  GENERAL  STAFF. 
A  well  organized  General  Staff  through  which  the 
commander  exercises  his  functions  is  essential  to  a  suc- 

49 


-60  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

cessful  modem  army.    Howevpr  o»r.oM^         j-  .  . 
battalion,  and  our  companrs  Is  .u^h  f  '"'  ^'^''^""'  '"^ 

in-Chief   ihi^  q+o^  ^    x  -^^    Under  the  Commander- 

the  dSuf ':,td„S  aS'  r  f  "^^  ""  <"-' 

^e.t  r.i:*,t;i:rL=^-LTSro^,T 

erai;  James  G.  Harbord,  who  was  succeeded  in  May,  1918, 


GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY.  51 

by  Major-General  James  W.  McAndrew.  To  these  offi- 
cers, to  the  deputy  Chief  of  Staff,  and  to  the  assistant 
Chiefs  of  Staff,  who,  as  heads  of  sections,  aided  them,  great 
credit  is  due  for  the  results  obtained  not  only  in  perfect- 
ing the  General  Staff  organization  but  in  applying  correct 
principles  to  the  multiplicity  of  problems  that  have  arisen. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  FORCES. 

After  a  thorough  consideration  of  Allied  organiza- 
tions it  was  decided  that  our  combat  division  should  con- 
sist of  four  regiments  of  infantry  of  3,000  men,  with  three 
battalions  to  a  regiment  and  four  companies  of  250  men 
each  to  a  battalion,  and  of  an  artillery  brigade  of  three  regi- 
ments, a  machine  gun  battalion,  an  engineer  regiment,  a 
trench-mortar  battery,  a  signal  battalion,  wagon  trains,  and 
the  headquarters  staffs  and  military  police.  These,  with 
medical  and  other  units,  made  a  total  of  over  28,000  men,  or 
practically  double  the  size  of  a  French  or  German  division. 
Each  corps  would  normally  consist  of  six  divisions— four 
combat  and  one  depot  and  one  replacement  division— and 
also  two  regiments  of  cavalry,  and  each  army  of  from  three 
to  five  corps.  With  four  divisions  fully  trained,  a  corps 
could  take  over  an  American  sector  with  two  divisions  in 
line  and  two  in  reserve,  with  the  depot  and  replacement 
divisions  prepared  to  fill  the  gaps  in  the  ranks. 

Our  purpose  was  to  prepare  an  integral  American 
force  which  should  be  able  to  take  the  offensive  in  every 
respect.  Accordingly,  the  development  of  a  self-reliant 
infantry  by  thorough  drill  in  the  use  of  the  rifle  and  in 
the  tactics  of  open  warfare  was  always  uppermost.  The 
plan  of  training  after  arrival  in  France  allowed  a  division 
one  month  for  acclimatization  and  instruction  in  small 
units  from  battalions  down,  a  second  month  in  quiet  trench 
sectors  by  battalions,  and  a  third  month  after  it  came  out 


52  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

/ 

/ 

of  the  trenches  when  it  should  be  trained  as  a  complete 
division  in  war  of  movement. 

SCHOOLS  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

Very  early  a  system  of  schools  was  outlined  and 
started,  which  should  have  the  advantage  of  instruction 
by  officers  direct  from  the  front.  At  the  great  school  center 
at  Langres,  one  of  the  first  to  be  organized,  was  the  staff 
school,  where  the  principles  of  general  staff  work,  as  laid 
down  in  our  own  organization,  were  taught  to  carefully 
selected  officers.  Men  in  the  ranks,  who  had  shown  quali- 
ties of  leadership,  were  sent  to  the  school  of  candidates 
for  commissions.  A  school  of  the  line  taught  younger 
officers  the  principles  of  leadership,  tactics,  and  the  use  of 
the  different  weapons.  In  the  artillery  school,  at  Saumur, 
young  officers  were  taught  the  fundamental  principles  of 
modern  artillery ;  while  at  Issoudun  an  immense  plant  was 
built  for  training  cadets  in  aviation.  These  and  other 
schools,  with  their  well-considered  curriculums  for  train- 
ing in  every  branch  of  our  organization,  were  co-ordinated 
in  a  manner  best  to  develop  an  efficient  army  out  of  willing 
and  industrious  young  men,  many  of  whom  had  not  before 
known  even  the  rudiments  of  military  technique.  Both 
Marshal  Haig  and  General  Petain  placed  officers  and  men 
at  our  disposal  for  instructional  purposes,  and  we-  are 
deeply  indebted  for  the  opportunities  given  to  profit  by 
their  veteran  experience. 

AMERICAN  ZONE. 

The  eventual  place  the  American  army  should  take  on 
the  western  front  was  to  a  large  extent  influenced  by  the 
vital  question  of  communication  and  supply.  The  north- 
ern ports  of  France  were  crowded  by  the  British  armies' 
shipping  and  supplies  while  the  southern  ports,  though 


/ 


GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY.  53 

otlierwise  at  our  service,  had  not  adequate  port  facilities 
for  our  purposes  and  these  we  should  have  to  build.  The 
already  overtaxed  railway  system  behind  the  active  front 
in  northern  France  would  not  be  available  for  us  as  lines 
of  supply  and  those  leading  from  the  southern  ports  of 
northeastern  France  would  be  unequal  to  our  needs  with- 
out much  new  construction.  Practically  all  warehouses, 
supply  depots  and  regulating  stations  must  be  provided 
by  fresh  constructions.  While  France  offered  us  such  ma- 
terial as  she  had  to  spare  after  a  drain  of  three  years, 
enormous  quantities  of  material  had  to  be  brought  across 
the  Atlantic. 

VAST  PREPARATIONS  NECESSARY. 

With  such  a  problem  any  temporization  or  lack  of 
definiteness  in  making  plans  might  cause  failure  even 
with  victory  within  our  grasp.  Moreover,  broad  plans 
commensurate  with  our  national  purpose  and  resources 
would  bring  conviction  of  our  power  to  every  soldier  in 
the  front  line,  to  the  nations  associated  with  us  in  the  war, 
and  to  the  enemy.  The  tonnage  for  material  for  neces- 
sary construction  for  the  supply  of  an  army  of  three  and 
perhaps  four  million  men  would  require  a  mammoth  pro- 
gram of  shipbuilding  at  home,  and  miles  of  dock  construc- 
tion in  France,  with  a  corresponding  large  project  for 
additional  railways  and  for  storage  depots. 

All  these  considerations  led  to  the  inevitable  conclu- 
sion that  if  we  were  to  handle  and  supply  the  great  forces 
deemed  essential  to  win  the  war  we  must  utilize  the  south- 
ern ports  of  France— Bordeaux,  La  Pallice,  St.  Nazaire, 
and  Brest— and  the  comparatively  unused  railway  systems 
leading  therefrom  to  the  northeast.  Generally  speaking, 
then,  this  would  contemplate  the  use  of  our  forces  against 
the  enemy  somewhere  in  that  direction,  but  the  great  depots 


54  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

of  supply  must  be  centrally  located,  preferably  in  the  area 
included  by  Tours,  Bourges,  and  Chateauroux,  so  that  our 
armies  could  be  supplied  with  equal  facility  ^Yherever  they 
might  be  serving  on  the  western  front. 

SKILLED  HELP. 

To  build  up  such  a  system  there  were  talented  men  in 
the  Eegular  Army,  but  more  experts  were  necessary  than 
the  army  could  furnish.  Thanks  to  the  patriotic  spirit 
of  our  people  at  home,  there  came  from  civil  life  men 
trained  for  every  sort  of  work  involved  in  building  and 
managing  the  organization  necessary  to  handle  and  trans- 
port such  an  army  and  keep  it  supplied.  With  such  as- 
sistance the  construction  and  general  development  of  our 
plans  have  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  forces,  and 
the  Service  of  Supply  is  now  able  to  discharge  from  ships 
and  move  45,000  tons  daily,  besides  transporting  troops 
and  material  in  the  conduct  of  active  operations. 

WORK  OF  THE  DEPARTMENTS. 

As  to  organization,  all  the  administrative  and  supply 
services,  except  the  Adjutant  General's,  Inspector  Gen- 
eral's, and  Judge  Advocates  General's  Departments  which 
remain  at  general  headquarters,  have  been  transferred  to 
the  headquarters  of  the  services  of  supplies  at  Tours  under 
a  conunanding  general  responsible  to  the  commander-in- 
chief  for  supply  of  the  armies.  The  Chief  Quartermaster, 
Chief  Surgeon,  Chief  Signal  Officer,  Chief  of  Ordnance, 
Chief  of  Air  Service,  Chief  of  Chemical  Warfare,  the  gen- 
eral purchasing  agent  in  all  that  pertains  to  questions  of 
procurement  and  supply,  the  Provost  Marshal  General  in 
the  maintenance  of  order  in  general,  the  Director  General 
of  Transportation  in  all  that  affects  such  matters,  and  the 
Chief  Engineer  in  all  matters  of  administration  and  sup- 


GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY.  55 

ply,  are  subordinate  to  the  Commanding  General  of  the 
Service  of  Supply,  who,  assisted  by  a  staff  especially 
organized  for  the  purpose,  is  charged  with  the  adminis- 
trative co-ordination  of  all  these  services. 

TRANSPORTATION  AND  ENGINEER'S  DEPARTMENT. 
The  transportation  department  under  the  Service  of 
Supply  directs  the  operation,  maintenance,  and  construc- 
tion of  railways,  the  operation  of  terminals,  the  unloading 
of  ships,  and  transportation  of  material  to  warehouses  or 
to  the  front.  Its  functions  make  necessary  the  most  inti- 
mate relationship  between  our  organization  and  that  of 
the  French,  with  the  practical  result  that  our  transpor- 
tation department  has  been  able  to  improve  materially  the 
operations  of  railways  generally.  Constantly  laboring 
under  a  shortage  of  rolling  stock,  the  transportation  de- 
partment has  nevertheless  been  able  by  officient  manage- 
ment to  meet  every  emergency. 

The  Engineer  Corps  is  charged  with  all  construction, 
mcluding  light  railways  and  roads.  It  has  planned  and  con- 
structed the  many  projects  required,  the  most  important 
of  which  are  the  new  wharves  at  Bordeaux  and  Nantes,  and 
the  immense  storage  depots  at  La  Pallice,  Montoir,  and 
Gievres,  besides  innumerable  hospitals  and  barracks  in 
various  ports  of  France.  These  projects  have  all  been 
carried  on  by  phases  keeping  pace  with  our  needs.  The 
Forestry  Service  under  the  Engineer  Corps  has  cut  the 
greater  part  of  the  timber  and  railway  ties  required. 

PURCHASES  IN  EUROPE. 

To  meet  the  shortage  of  supplies  from  America,  due 

to  lack  of  shipping,  the  representatives  of  the  different 

supply  departments  were  constantly  in  search  of  available 

material  and  supplies  in  Europe.    In  order  to  co-ordinate 


56  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

these  purchases  and  to  prevent  competition  between  our 
departments,  a  general  purchasing  agency  was  created 
early  in  our  experience  to  co-ordinate  our  purchases  and, 
if  possible,  induce  our  Allies  to  apply  the  principle  among 
the  Allied  armies.  While  there  was  no  authority  for  the 
general  use  of  appropriations,  this  was  met  by  grouping 
the  purchasing  representatives  of  the  different  depart- 
ments under  one  control,  charged  with  the  duty  of  consoli- 
dating requisitions  and  purchases.  Our  efforts  to  extend 
the  principle  have  been  signally  successful,  and  all  pur- 
chases for  the  Allied  armies  are  now  on  an  equitable  and 
co-operative  basis.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  the  work 
of  this  bureau  has  been  thoroughly  eflScient  and  business- 
like. 

ARTILLERY,  AIRPLANES  AND  TANKS. 

Our  entry  into  the  war  found  us  with  few  of  the  aux- 
iliaries necessary  for  its  conduct  in  the  modern  sense. 
Among  our  most  important  deficiencies  in  material  were 
artillery,  aviation,  and  tanks.  In  order  to  meet  our  re- 
quirements as  rapidly  as  possible,  we  accepted  the  offer  of 
the  French  Government  to  provide  us  with  the  necessary 
artillery  equipment  of  seventy-fives,  one  fifty-five  milli- 
meter howitzers,  and  one-fifty-five  G  P  F  guns  from  their 
own  factories  for  thirty  divisions.  The  wisdom  of  this 
course  is  fully  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that,  although  we 
soon  began  the  manufacture  of  these  classes  of  guns  at 
home,  there  were  no  guns  of  the  calibers  mentioned  manu- 
factured in  America  on  our  front  at  the  date  the  armistice 
was  signed.  The  only  guns  of  these  types  produced  at 
home  thus  far  received  in  France  are  109  seventy-five  milli- 
meter guns. 

In  aviation  we  were  in  the  same  situation,  and  here 
again  the  French  Government  came  to  our  aid  until  our 
own  aviation  program  should  be  under  way.    We  obtained 


GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY.  57 

from  the  French  the  necessary  planes  for  training  our 
personnel,  and  they  have  provided  ns  with  a  total  of  2,676 
pursuit,  observation,  and  bombing  planes.  The  first  air- 
planes received  from  home  arrived  in  May,  and  altogether 
we  have  received  1,379.  The  first  American  squadron 
completely  equipped  by  American  production,  including 
airplanes,  crossed  the  German  lines  on  August  7, 1918.  As 
to  tanks,  we  were  also  compelled  to  rely  upon  the  French, 
Here,  however,  we  were  less  fortunate,  for  the  reason  that 
the  French  production  could  barely  meet  the  requirements 
of  their  own  armies. 

OUR  OBLIGATIONS  TO  FRANCE. 
It  should  be  fully  realized  that  the  French  Govern- 
ment has  always  taken  a  most  liberal  attitude  and  has  been 
most  anxious  to  give  us  every  possible  assistance  in  meet- 
ing our  deficiencies  in  these  as  well  as  in  other  respects. 
Our  dependence  upon  France  for  artillery,  aviation,  and 
tanks  was,  of  course,  due  to  the  fact  that  our  industries 
had  not  been  exclusively  devoted  to  military  production. 
All  credit  is  due  our  own  manufacturers  for  their  efforts 
to  meet  our  requirements,  as  at  the  time  the  armistice  was 
signed  we  were  able  to  look  forward  to  the  early  supply 
of  practically  all  our  necessities  from  our  own  factories. 

CAMP  WELFARE  WORK. 
The  welfare  of  the  troops  touches  my  responsibility 
as  Commander-in-Chief  to  the  mothers  and  fathers  and 
kindred  of  the  men  who  came  to  France  in  the  impres- 
sionable period  of  youth.  They  could  not  have  the  privi- 
lege accorded  European  soldiers  during  their  periods  of 
leave  of  visiting  their  families  and  renewing  their  home 
ties.  Fully  realizing  that  the  standard  of  conduct  that 
should  be  established  for  them  must  have  a  permanent  in- 


58  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

fluence  in  their  lives  and  on  the  character  of  their  future 
citizenship,  the  Eed  Cross,  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  Knights  of  Columbus,  the  Salvation  Army 
and  the  Jewish  Welfare  Board,  as  auxiliaries  in  this  work 
were  encouraged  in  every  possible  way.  The  fact  that  our 
soldiers,  m  a  land  of  different  customs  and  language,  have 
borne  themselves  in  a  manner  in  keeping  with  the  cause  for 
which  they  fought,  is  due  not  only  to  the  efforts  in  their 
behalf  but  much  more  to  other  high  ideals,  their  discipline, 
and  their  innate  sense  of  self-respect.  It  should  be  re- 
corded, however,  that  the  members  of  these  welfare  socie- 
ties have  been  untiring  in  their  desire  to  be  of  real  service 
to  our  ofScers  and  men.  The  patriotic  devotion  of  these 
representative  men  and  women  has  given  a  new  signifi- 
cance to  the  Golden  Rule,  and  we  owe  to  them  a  debt  of 
gratitude  that  can  never  be  repaid. 

COMBAT  OPERATIONS. 
During  our  periods  of  training  in  the  trenches  some 
of  our  divisions  had  engaged  the  enemy  in  local  combats, 
the  most  important  of  which  was  Seicheprey  by  the 
Twenty-sixth  on  April  20,  in  the  Toul  sector,  but  none 
had  participated  in  action  as  a  unit.  The  First  Division, 
which  had  passed  through  the  preliminary  stages  of  train- 
ing, had  gone  to  the  trenches  for  its  first  period  of  in- 
struction at  the  end  of  October  and  by  March  21,  when 
the  German  offensive  in  Picardy  began,  we  had  four  divi- 
sions with  experience  in  the  trenches,  all  of  which  were 
equal  to  any  demands  of  battle  action.  The  crisis  which 
this  offensive  developed  was  such  that  our  occupation  of 
an  American  sector  must  be  postponed. 

TROOPS  PLACED  UNDER  MARSHAL  FOCH. 
On  March  28  I  placed  at  the  disposal  of  Marshal  Foch 
who  had  been  agreed  upon  as  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 


GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY.  59 

Allied  amies,  all  of  our  forces  to  be  used  as  lie  might 
decide.  At  his  request  the  First  Division  was  transferred 
from  the  Toul  sector  to  a  position  in  reserve  at  Chau- 
mont  en  Vexin.  As  German  superiority  in  numbers  re- 
quired prompt  action,  an  agreement  was  reached  at  the 
Abbeville  conference  of  the  Allied  premiers  and  command- 
ers and  myself  on  May  2  by  which  British  shipping  was 
to  transport  ten  American  divisions  to  the  British  army 
area,  where  they  were  to  be  trained  and  equipped,  and 
additional  British  shipping  was  to  be  provided  for  as 
many  divisions  as  possible  for  use  elsewhere. 

THE  CANTIGNY  OPERATIONS. 

On  April  26  the  First  Division  had  gone  into  the  line 
in  the  Montdidier  salient  on  the  Picardy  battlefront. 
Tactics  had  been  suddenly  revolutionized  to  those  of  open 
warfare,  and  our  men,  confident  of  the  results  of  their 
training,  were  eager  for  the  test.  On  the  morning  of  May 
28  this  division  attacked  the  commanding  German  posi- 
tion in  its  front,  taking  with  splendid  dash  the  town  of 
Cantigny  and  all  other  objectives,  which  were  organized 
and  held  steadfastly  against  vicious  counter-attacks  and 
galling  artillery  fire.  Although  local,  this  brilliant  action 
had  an  electrical  effect,  as  it  demonstrated  our  fighting 
qualities  under  extreme  battle  conditions,  and  also  that 
the  enemy's  troops  were  not  altogether  invincible. 

THE  GERMAN  AISNE  OFFENSIVE. 
The  Germans'  Aisne  offensive,  which  began  on  May 
27,  had  advanced  rapidly  toward  the  River  Marne  and 
Paris,  and  the  Allies  faced  a  crisis  equally  as  grave  as 
that  of  the  Picardy  offensive  in  March.  Again  every  avail- 
able man  was  placed  at  Marshal  Foch's  disposal,  and  the 
Third  Division,  which  had  just  come  from  its  preluninary 


60  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

training  in  the  trenches,  was  hurried  to  the  Mame     Its 
motorized  machine  gun  battalion  preceded  the  other  units 
and  successfuHy  held  the  bridgehead  at  the  Marne,  oppo- 
site Chateau-Thierry.     The  Second  Division,  in  reserve 
near  Montdidier,  was  sent  by  motor  trucks  and  other  avail- 
able transport  to  cheek  the  progress  of  the  enemy  toward 
-Pans.     The  Division  attacked  and  retook  the  town  and 
i-ailroad  station  at  Bouresches  and  sturdily  held  its  ground 
agams    the  enemy's  best  guard  divisions.     In  the  battle 
of  Belleau  Wood,  which  foUowed,  our  men  proved  their 
superiority  and  gained  a  strong  tactical  position,  with  far 
greater  loss  to  the  enemy  than  to  ourselves.    On  July  1 
before  the  Second  was  relieved,  it  captured  the  village  of 
Vaux  with  most  splendid  precision 

Meanwhile  our  Second  Corps,  under  Maj.  Gen. 
George  W.  Eead,  had  been  organized  for  the  command 
of  our  divisions  with  the  British,  which  were  held  back  in 
training  areas  or  assigned  to  second-line  defenses.  Five 
of  the  ten  divisions  were  withdrawn  from  the  British  area 
m  June,  three  to  relieve  divisions  in  Lorraine  and  the 
Vosges  and  two  to  the  Paris  area  to  join  the  group  of  Ameri- 
can divisions  which  stood  between  the  city  and  any  farther 
advance  of  the  enemy  in  that  direction. 

OPERATIONS  NEAR  RHEIMS. 

w««  '^^l^^'^f  June-July  troop  movement  from  the  States 
was  well  under  way,  and,  although  these  troops  were  to 
be  given  some  preliminary  training  before  being  put  into 
action  their  very  presence  warranted  the  use  of  all  the 
older  divisions  in  the  confidence  that  we  did  not  lack  re- 
serves.   Elements  of  the  Forty-second  Division  were  in 

Tu'lv  T."  '"^V'L^^™'  ^^^^'^  ^^'  ^^™«^  offensive  of 
July  15  and  held  their  ground  unflinchingly.  On  the  right 
flank  of  this  offensive  four  companies  of  the  Twenty- 


GENERAL  PERSHING  ^S  OWN  STORY.  63: 

eighth  Division  were  in  position  in  face  of  the  advancing 
waves  of  the  German  infantry.  The  Third  Division  was 
holding  the  bank  of  the  Marne  from  the  bend  east  of  the 
month  of  the  Surmelin  to  the  west  of  Mezy,  opposite 
Chateau-Thierry,  where  a  large  force  of  German  infantry 
sought  to  force  a  passage  under  support  of  powerful 
artillery  concentrations  and  imder  cover  of  smoke  screens. 
A  single  regiment  of  the  Third  wrote  one  of  the  most  bril- 
liant pages  in  our  military  annals  on  this  occasion.  It 
prevented  the  crossing  at  certain  points  on  its  front 
while,  on  either  flank,  the  Germans,  who  had  gained  a  foot- 
ing, pressed  forward.  Our  men,  firing  in  three  directions, 
met  the  German  attacks  with  counter-attacks  at  critical 
points  and  succeeded  in  throwing  two  German  divisions 
into  complete  confusion,  capturing  600  prisoners. 

BEGINNING  OF  THE  COUNTER  ATTACK. 
The  great  force  of  the  German  Chateau-Thierry  of- 
fensive established  the  deep  Marne  salient,  but  the  enemy 
was  taking  chances,  and  the  vulnerability  of  this  pocket 
to  attack  might  be  turned  to  his  disadvantage.  Seizing 
this  opportunity  to  support  my  conviction,  every  division 
with  any  sort  of  training  was  made  available  for  use  in  a 
counter-offensive.  The  place  of  honor  in  the  thrust  to- 
ward Soissons  on  July  18  was  given  to  our  First  and 
Second  Divisions  in  company  with  chosen  French  divi- 
sions. Without  the  usual  brief  warning  of  a  preliminary 
bombardment,  the  massed  French  and  American  artiUery, 
firing  by  the  map,  laid  down  its  rolling  barrage  at  dawn 
while  the  infantry  began  its  charge.  The  tactical  hand- 
ling of  our  troops  under  these  trying  conditions  was  ex- 
cellent throughout  the  action.  The  enemy  brought  up 
large  numbers  of  reserves  and  made  a  stubborn  defense 
both  with  machine  guns  and  artillery,  but  through  five 


62  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

days'  fighting  the  First  Division  continued  to  advance 
until  it  had  gained  the  heights  above  Soissons  and  cap- 
tured the  village  of  Berzy-le-sec.  The  Second  Division 
took  Beau  Eepaire  farm  and  Vierzy  in  a  very  rapid  ad- 
vance and  reached  a  position  in  front  of  Tigny  at  the  end 
of  its  second  day.  These  two  divisions  captured  7,000 
prisoners  and  over  100  pieces  of  artillery. 

THE  SOISSONS  ATTACK. 

The  Twenty-sixth  Division,  which,  with  a  French  divi- 
sion, was  under  command  of  our  First  Corps,  acted  as  a 
pivot  of  the  movement  toward  Soissons.  On  the  18th  it 
took  the  village  of  Torcy,  while  the  Third  Division  was 
crossing  the  Marne  in  pursuit  of  the  retiring  enemy.  The 
Twenty-sixth  attacked  again  on  the  21st,  and  the  enemy 
withdrew  past  the  Chateau-Thierry-Soissons  road.  The 
Third  Division,  continuing  its  progress,  took  the  heights 
of  Mont  St.  Pere  and  the  villages  of  Charteves  and  Jaul- 
gonne  in  the  face  of  both  machine  gun  and  artillery  fire. 

On  the  24th,  after  the  Germans  had  fallen  back  from 
Trugny  and  Epieds,  our  Forty-second  Division,  which  had 
been  brought  over  from  the  Champagne,  relieved  the 
Twenty-sixth  and,  fighting  its  way  through  the  Foret  de 
Fere,  overwhelmed  the  nest  of  machine  guns  in  its  path. 
By  the  27th  it  had  reached  the  Ourcq,  whence  the  Third 
and  Fourth  Divisions  were  already  advancing,  while  the 
French  divisions  with  which  we  were  co-operating  were 
moving  forward  at  other  points. 

The  Third  Division  had  made  its  advance  into  Eon- 
cheres  Wood  on  the  29th  and  was  relieved  for  rest  by  a 
brigade  of  the  Thirty-second.  The  Forty-second  and 
Thirty-second  undertook  the  task  of  conquering  the 
heights  beyond  Cierges,  the  Forty-second  capturing  Sergy 
and  the  Thirty-second  capturing  Hill  230,  both  American 


GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY.  63 

divisions  joining  in  the  pursuit  of  the  enemy  to  the  Vesle, 
and  thus  the  operation  of  reducing  the  salient  was  fin- 
ished. Meanwhile  the  Forty-second  was  relieved  by  the 
Fourth  at  Chery-Chartreuve,  and  the  Thirty-second  by 
the  Twenty-eighth,  while  the  Seventy-seventh  Division 
took  up  a  position  on  the  Vesle.  The  operations  of  these 
divisions  on  the  Vesle  were  under  the  Third  Corps.  Maj. 
Gen.  Eobert  L.  Bullard,  commanding. 

BATTLE  OF  ST.  MIHIEL. 

With  the  reduction  of  the  Marne  salient  we  could  look 
forward  to  the  concentration  of  our  divisions  in  our  own 
zone.  In  view  of  the  forthcoming  operation  against  the 
St.  Mihiel  salient,  which  had  long  been  planned  as  our 
first  offensive  action  on  a  large  scale,  the  First  Army  was 
organized  on  August  10  under  my  personal  command. 
While  American  units  had  held  different  divisional  and 
corps  sectors  along  the  western  front,  there  had  not  been 
lip  to  this  time,  for  obvious  reasons,  a  distinct  American 
sector;  but,  in  view  of  the  important  parts  the  American 
forces  were  now  to  play,  it  was  necessary  to  take  over  a 
permanent  portion  of  the  line.  Accordingly,  on  August  30, 
the  line  beginning  at  Port  sur  Seille,  east  of  the  Moselle 
and  extending  to  the  west  through  St.  Mihiel,  thence  north 
to  a  point  opposite  Verdun,  was  placed  under  my  com- 
mand. The  American  sector  was  afterwards  extended 
across  the  Meuse  to  the  western  edge  of  the  Argonne 
Forest,  and  included  the  Second  Colonial  French,  which 
held  the  point  of  the  salient,  and  the  Seventeenth  French 
Corps,  which  occupied  the  heights  above  Verdun. 

PREPARATION  FOR  THE  ATTACK. 

The  preparation  for  a  complicated  operation  against 
the  formidable  defenses  in  front  of  us  included  the  as- 


64  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

sembling  of  divisions  and  of  corps  and  army  artillery, 
transport,  aircraft,  tanks,  ambulances,  the  location  of  hos- 
pitals, and  the  molding  together  of  all  of  the  elements 
of  a  great  modern  army  with  its  own  railheads,  supplied 
directly  by  our  own  Service  of  Supply.  The  concentra- 
tion for  this  operation,  which  was  to  be  a  surprise,  involved 
the  movement,  mostly  at  night,  of  approximately  600,000 
troops,  and  required  for  its  success  the  most  careful  atten- 
tion to  every  detail. 

The  French  were  generous  in  giving  us  assistance  in 
corps  and  army  artillery,  with  its  personnel,  and  we  were 
confident  from  the  start  of  our  superiority  over  the  enemy 
in  guns  of  all  calibers.  Our  heavy  guns  were  able  to  reach 
Metz  and  to  interfere  seriously  with  German  rail  move- 
ments. The  French  Independent  Air  Force  was  placed 
under  my  command  which,  together  with  the  British 
bombing  squadrons  and  our  air  forces,  gave  us  the  largest 
assembly  of  aviation  that  had  ever  been  engaged  in  one 
operation  on  the  western  front. 

LOCATION  OF  THE  TROOPS. 

From  Les  Eparges  around  the  nose  of  the  salient  at 
St.  Mihiel  to  the  Moselle  River  the  line  was  roughly  forty 
miles  long  and  situated  on  commanding  ground  greatly 
strengthened  by  artificial  defenses.  Our  First  Corps 
(Eighty-second,  Nintieth,  Fifth,  and  Second  Divisions), 
under  command  of  Maj.  Gen.  Hunter  Liggett,  restrung 
its  right  on  Pont-a-Mouson,  with  its  left  joining 
our  Third  Corps  (the  Eighty-ninth,  Forty-second,  and 
First  Divisions),  under  Maj.  Gen.  Joseph  T.  Dick- 
man,  in  line  to  Xivray,  were  to  swing  in  toward  Vigneulles 
on  the  pivot  of  the  Moselle  River  for  the  initial  assault. 
From  Xivray  to  Mouilly  the  Second  Colonial  French  Corps 
was  in  line  in  the  center  and  our  Fifth  Corps,  imder  com- 


GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY.  65 

mand  of  Maj.  Gen.  George  H.  Cameron,  with  our 
Twenty-sixth  Division  and  a  French  division  at  the  west- 
ern base  of  the  salient,  were  to  attack  three  difBcult  hills— 
Les  Eparges,  Combres,  and  Amaramthe.  Our  First  Corps 
had  in  reserve  the  Seventy-eighth  Division,  our  Fourth 
Corps  the  Third  Division,  and  our  First  Army  the  Thirty- 
fifth  and  Ninety-first  Divisions,  with  the  Eightieth  and 
Thirty-third  available.  It  should  be  understood  that  our 
corps  organizations  are  very  elastic,  and  that  we  have  at 
no  time  had  permanent  assignments  of  divisions  to  corps. 

MOVEMENT  OF  THE  TROOPS. 

After  four  hours'  artillery  preparation,  the  seven 
American  divisions  in  the  front  line  advanced  at  5  A.  M. 
on  September  12,  assisted  by  a  limited  number  of  tanks 
manned  partly  by  Americans  and  partly  by  the  French. 
These  divisions,  accompanied  by  groups  of  wire  cutters 
and  others  armed  with  bangalore  torpedoes,  went  through 
the  successive  bands  of  l3arbed  wire  that  protected  the 
enemy's  front  line  and  support  trenches,  in  irresistible 
waves  on  schedule  time,  breaking  down  all  defense  of  an 
enemy  demoralized  by  the  great  volume  of  our  artillery 
fire  and  our  sudden  approach  out  of  the  fog. 

Our  First  Corps  advanced  to  Thiaucourt,  while  our 
Fourth  Corps  curved  back  to  the  southwest  through  Non- 
sard.  The  Second  Colonial  French  Corps  made  the  slight 
advance  required  of  it  on  very  difiScult  ground,  and  the 
Fifth  Corps  took  its  three  ridges  and  repulsed  a  counter- 
attack. A  rapid  march  brought  reserve  regiments  of  a 
division  of  the  Fifth  Corps  into  Vigneulles  in  the  early 
morning,  where  it  linked  up  with  patrols  of  our  Fourth 
Corps,  closing  the  salient  and  forming  a  new  line  west  of 
Thiaucourt  to  Vigneulles  and  beyond  Fresnes-en-Woevre. 
At  the  cost  of  only  7,000  casualties,  mostly  light,  we  had 


66  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

taken  16,000  prisoners  and  443  guns,  a  great  quantity  ol 
material,  released  the  inhabitants  of  many  villages  from 
enemy  domination,  and  established  our  lines  in  a  position 
to  threaten  Metz.  This  signal  success  of  the  American 
First  Army  in  its  first  offensive  was  of  prime  importance. 
The  Allies  found  they  had  a  formidable  army  to  aid  them, 
and  the  enemy  learned  finally  that  he  had  one  to  reckon 
with. 

PREPARATION  FOR  THE  ARGONNE  OFFENSIVE. 

On  the  day  after  we  had  taken  the  St  Mihiel  salient, 
much  of  our  corps  and  army  artillery  which  had  oper- 
ated at  St.  Mihiel  and  our  divisions  in  reserve  at  other 
points,  were  already  on  the  move  toward  the  area  back  of 
the  line  between  the  Meuse  Eiver  and  the  western  edge  of 
the  forest  of  Argonne.  With  the  exception  of  St.  Mihiel, 
the  old  German  front  line  from  Switzerland  to  the  east 
of  Eheims  was  still  intact.  In  the  general  attack  all 
along  the  line,  the  operation  assigned  the  American  army 
as  the  hinge  of  this  Allied  offensive  was  directed  toward 
the  important  railroad  communications  of  the  German 
armies  through  Mezieres  and  Sedan.  The  enemy  must  hold 
fast  to  this  part  of  his  lines  or  the  withdrawal  of  his  forces 
with  four  years'  accumulation  of  plants  and  material  would 
be  dangerously  imperiled. 

The  German  army  had  as  yet  shown  no  demoraliza- 
tion and,  while  the  mass  of  its  troops  had  suffered  in 
morale,  its  first-class  divisions  and  notably  its  machine  gun 
defense  were  exhibiting  remarkable  tactical  eflSciency  as 
well  as  courage.  The  German  General  Staff  was  fully 
aware  of  the  consequences  of  a  success  on  the  Meuse- 
Argonne  line.  Certain  that  he  would  do  everything  in  his 
power  to  oppose  us,  the  action  was  planned  with  as  much 
secrecy  as  possible  and  was  undertaken  with  the  deter- 


GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY.  6?! 

niination  to  use  all  our  divisions  in  forcing  a  decision.  We 
expected  to  draw  the  best  German  divisions  to  our  front 
and  to  consimie  them  while  the  enemy  was  held  under  grave 
apprehension  lest  our  attack  should  break  his  line,  which 
it  was  our  firm  purpose  to  do. 

LINE  OF  BATTLE. 

Our  right  flank  was  protected  by  the  Meuse,  while  our 
left  embraced  the  Argonne  Forest,  whose  ravines,  hills, 
and  elaborate  defense  screened  by  dcMse  thickets  had  been 
generally  considered  impregnable.  Our  order  of  battle 
from  right  to  left  was  the  Third  Corps  from  the  Meuse 
to  Malancourt,  with  the  Thirty-third,  Eightieth,  and 
Fourth  Divisions  in  line,  and  the  Third  Division  as  corps 
reserve;  the  Fifth  Corps  from  Malancourt  to  Vauquois, 
with  Seventy-ninth,  Eighty-seventh,  and  Ninety-first  Divi- 
sions in  line,  and  the  Thirty-second  in  corps  reserve;  and 
the  First  Corps,  from  Vauquois  to  Vienne  le  Chateau,  with 
Thirty-fifth,  Twenty-eighth,  and  Seventy-seventh  Divi- 
sions in  line,  and  the  Ninety-second  in  corps  reserve.  The 
army  reserve  consisted  of  the  First,  Twenty-ninth,  and 
Eighty-second  Divisions. 

BATTLE  OPERATIONS. 

On  the  night  of  September  25  our  troops  quietly  took 
the  place  of  the  French  who  thinly  held  the  line  in  this 
sector  which  had  long  been  inactive.  In  the  attack,  which 
began  on  the  26th,  we  drove  through  the  barbed  wire  en- 
tanglements and  the  sea  of  shell  craters  across  No  Man's 
Land,  mastering  all  the  first  line  defenses.  Continuing 
on  the  27th  and  28th,  against  machine  guns  and  artillery 
of  an  increasing  number  of  enemy  reserve  divisions,  we 
penetrated  to  a  depth  of  from  three  to  seven  miles,  and 
took  the  village  of  Montfaucon  and  its  commanding  hill 


68  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

and  Exermont,  Gercourt,  Cuisy,  Septsarges,  Malancourt, 
Ivoiry,  Epmionville,  Charpentry,  Very,  and  other  villages. 
East  of  the  Meuse  one  of  our  divisions,  which  was  with 
the  Second  Colonial  French  Corps,  captured  Marche- 
Tille  and  Rieville,  giving  further  protection  to  the  flank 
of  our  main  body.  We  had  taken  10,000  prisoners,  we 
had  gained  our  point  of  forcing  the  battle  into  the  open 
and  were  prepared  for  the  enemy's  reaction,  which  was 
bound  to  come,  as  he  had  good  roads  and  ample  railroad 
facilities  for  bringing  up  his  artillery  and  reserves. 

GREAT  DIFFICULTIES  OVERCOME. 
In  the  chill  rain  of  dark  nights  our  engineers  had  to 
build  new  roads  across  spongy,  shell-torn  areas,  repair 
broken  roads  beyond  No  Man's  Land,  and  build  bridges. 
Our  gunners,  with  no  thought  of  sleep,  put  their  shoulders 
to  wheels  and  dragropes  to  bring  their  guns  through  the 
mire  in  support  of  the  infantry,  now  under  the  increas- 
ing fire  of  the  enemy's  artillery.    Our  attack  had  taken 
the  enemy  by  surprise,  but,  quickly  recovering  himself, 
he  began  to  fire  counter-attacks  in  strong  force,  supported 
by  heavy  bombardments,  with  large  quantities  of  gas. 
Erom  September  28  untU  October  4  we  maintained  the 
offensive  against  patches  of  woods  defended  by  snipers 
and  conMnuous  lines  of  machine  guns,  and  pushed  for- 
ward our  guns  and  transports,  seizing  strategical  points 
in  preparation  for  further  attacks. 

OTHER  UNITS  WITH  ALLIES. 

Other  divisions  attached  to  the  Allied  armies  were 
doing  their  part.  It  was  the  fortune  of  our  Second  Corps, 
composed  of  the  Twenty-seventh  and  Thirtieth  Divisions, 
which  had  remained  with  the  British,  to  have  a  place  of 
honor  in  co-operation  with  the  Australian  Corps  on  Sep- 


GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY.  69 

tember  29  and  October  1  in  the  assault  on  the  Hindenburg 
Line  where  the  St.  Quentin  Canal  passes  through  a  tunnel 
under  a  ridge.  The  Thirtieth  Division  speedily  broke 
through  the  main  line  of  defense  for  aU  its  objectives, 
while  the  Twenty-seventh  pushed  on  impetuously  through 
the  main  line  until  some  of  its  elements  reached  Gouy.  In 
the  midst  of  the  maze  of  trenches  and  shell  craters  and 
under  cross-fire  from  machine  guns  the  other  elements 
fought  desperately  against  odds.  In  this  and  in  later 
actions,  from  October  6  to  October  19,  our  Second  Corps 
captured  over  6,000  prisoners  and  advanced  over  13  miles. 
The  spirit  and  aggressiveness  of  these  divisions  have  been 
highly  praised  by  the  British  army  commander  under  whom 
they  served. 

OPERATIONS  NEAR  RHEIMS. 
On  October  2-9  our  Second  and  Thirty-sixth  Divisions 
were  sent  to  assist  the  French  in  an  important  attack 
against  the  old  German  ipositions  before  Eheims.     The 
Second  conquered  the  complicated  defense  works  on  their 
front  against  a  persistent  defense  worthy  of  the  grimmest 
period  of  trench  warfare  and  attacked  the  strongly  held 
wooded  hill  of  Blanc  Mont,  which  they  captured  in  a  sec- 
ond assault,  sweeping  over  it  with  consummate  dash  and 
skill.     This  division  then  repulsed  strong  counter-attacks 
before  the  village  and  cemetery  of  Ste.  Etienne  and  took 
the  town,  forcing  the  Germans  to  fall  back  from  before 
Rheims  and  yield  positions  they  had  held  since  September, 
1914.    On  October  9  the  Thirty-sixth  Division  relieved  the 
Second  and,  in  its  first  experience  under  fire,  withstood 
very  severe  artillery  bombardment  and  rapidly  took  up  the 
pursuit  of  the  enemy,  now  retiring  behind  the  Aisne. 
RESULTS   OF   AMERICAN   OPERATIONS. 
The  Allied  progress  elsewhere  cheered  the  efforts  of 
our  men  in  this  crucial  contest  as  the  German  command 


70  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

threw  in  more  and  more  first-class  troops  to  stop  our 
advance.    We  made  steady  headway  in  the  almost  impene- 
trable and  strongly  held  Argonne  Forest,  for,  despite  this 
reinforcement,  it  was  our  army  that  was  doing  the  driving. 
Our  aircraft  was  increasing  in  skill  and  numbers  and  forc- 
ing the  issue,  and  our  infantry  and  artillery  were  improv- 
ing rapidly  with  each  new  experience.    The  replacements 
fresh  from  home  were  put  into  exhausted  divisions  with 
little  time  for  training,  but  they  had  the  advantage  of 
serving  beside  men  who  knew  their  business  and  who  had 
almost  becomes  veterans  overnight.    The  enemy  had  taken 
every  advantage  of  the  terrain,  which  especiaUy  favored 
the  defense  by  a  prodigal  use  of  machine  guns  manned  by 
highly  trained  veterans  and  by  using  his  artillery  at  short 
ranges.    In  the  face  of  such  strong  frontal  positions  we 
should  have  been  unable  to  accomplish  any  progress  ac- 
cording to  previously  accepted  standards,  but  I  had  every 
confidence  in  our  aggressive  tactics  and  the  courage  of 

our  troops. 

PROGRESS  UNDER  DIFFICULTIES. 

On  October  4  the  attack  was  renewed  all  along  our 
front  The  Third  Corps  tilting  to  the  left  followed  the 
BrieuUes-Cunel  road;  our  Fifth  Corps  took  Gesnes,  while 
the  First  Corps  advanced  for  over  two  miles  along  the 
irregular  valley  of  the  Aire  Kiver  and  in  the  wooded  hills 
of  the  Argonne  that  bordered  the  river,  used  by  the  enemy 
with  all  his  art  and  weapons  of  defense.  This  sort  of 
fighting  continued  against  an  enemy  striving  to  hold  every 
foot  of  ground  and  whose  very  strong  counter-attacks 
challenged  us  at  every  point.  On  the  7th  the  First  Corps 
captured  Chatel-Chehery  and  continued  along  the  river  to 
Cornay.  On  the  east  of  Meuse  sector  one  of  the  two  divi- 
sions co-operating  with  the  French  captured  Consenvoye 


GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY.  71 

and  the  Haumont  Woods.  On  the  9th  the  Fifth  Corps, 
in  its  progress  up  the  Aire,  took  Fleville,  and  the  Third 
Corps,  which  had  continuous  fighting  against  odds,  was 
working  its  way  through  BrieuUes  and  Cunel  On  the 
10th  we  had  cleared  the  Argonne  Forest  of  the  enemy. 

FORMATION  OF  SECOND  ARMY. 
It  was  now  necessary  to  constitute  a  second  army,  and 
on  October  9  the  immediate  command  of  the  First  Army 
was  turned  over  to  Lieut.   Gen.  Hunter  Liggett.     The 
command  of  the  Second  Army,  whose  divisions  occupied  a 
sector  in  the  Woevre,  was  given  to  Lieut.  Gen.  Robert  L. 
Bullard,  who  had  been  commander  of  the  First  Division 
and  then  of  the  Third  Corps.     Major  General  Dickman 
was  transferred  to  the  command  of  the  First  Corps,  while 
the  Fifth  Corps  was  placed  under  Maj.  Gen.  Charles  P. 
Summerall,  who  had  recently  commanded  the  First  Divi- 
sion.   Maj.  Gen.  John  L.  Hines,  who  had  gone  rapidly  up 
from  regimental  to  division  commander,  was  assigned  to 
the  Third  Corps.    These  four  officers  had  been  in  France 
from  the  early  days  of  the  expedition  and  had  learned 
their  lessons  in  the  school  of  practical  warfare. 

Our  constant  pressure  against  the  enemy  brought  day 
by  day  more  prisoners,  mostly  survivors  from  machine 
gun  nests  captured  in  fighting  at  close  quarters.  On  Octo- 
ber 18  there  was  very  fierce  fighting  in  the  Caures  Woods 
east  of  the  Meuse  and  in  the  Ormont  Woods.  On  the  14th 
the  First  Corps  took  St.  Juvin,  and  the  Fifth  Corps,  in 
hand-to-hand  encounters,  entered  the  formidable  Kriem- 
hilde  Line,  where  the  enemy  had  hoped  to  check  us  indefi- 
nitely. Later  the  Fifth  Corps  penetrated  further  the 
Kriemhilde  Line,  and  the  First  Corps  took  ChampigneuUes 
and  the  important  to\TO  of  Grandpre.  Our  dogged  offen- 
sive was  wearing  down  the  enemy,  who  continued  desper- 


72  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

ately  to  throw  his  best  troops  against  ns,  thus  weakening 
his  line  in  front  of  our  Allies  and  making  their  advance 

less  difficult. 

AMERICANS  IN  BELGIUM. 

Meanwhile  we  were  not  only  able  to  continue  the  bat- 
tle, but  our  Thirty-seventh  and  Ninety-first  Divisions  were 
hastily  withdrawn  from  our  front  and  dispatched  to  help 
the  French  army  in  Belgium.  Detraining  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Ypres,  these  divisions  advanced  by  rapid  stages 
to  the  fighting  line  and  were  assigned  to  adjacent  French 
corps.  On  October  31,  in  continuation  of  the  Flanders 
offensive,  they  attacked  and  methodically  broke  down  all 
enemy  resistance.  On  November  3  the  Thirty-seventh  had 
completed  its  mission  in  dividing  the  enemy  across  the 
Escaut  Eiver  and  firmly  established  itself  along  the  east- 
bank  included  in  the  division  zone  of  action.  By  a  clever 
flanking  movement,  troops  of  the  Ninety-first  Division 
captured  Spitaals  Bosschen,  a  difficult  wood  extending 
across  the  central  part  of  the  division  sector,  reached  the 
Escaut,  and  penetrated  into  the  town  of  Audenarde.  These 
divisions  received  high  connnendation  from  their  corps 
commanders  for  their  dash  and  energy. 

REGROUPING  FOR  FINAL  ASSAULT. 

On  the  23d  the  Third  and  Fifth  Corps  pushed  north- 
ward to  the  level  of  Bantheville.  While  we  continued  to 
press  forward  and  throw  back  the  enemy's  violent  counter- 
attacks with  great  loss  to  him,  a  regrouping  of  our  forces 
was  under  way  for  the  final  assault.  Evidence  of  loss  of 
morale  by  the  enemy  gave  our  men  more  confidence  in 
attack  and  more  fortitude  in  enduring  the  fatigue  of  inces- 
sant effort  and  the  hardships  of  very  inclement  weather. 

With  comparatively  well-rested  divisions,  the  final 
advance  in  the  Meuse-Argonne  front  was  begun  on  Novem- 


GENERAL  PEE^kuMa'S  OWN  STORY.  73 

ber  1.  Our  increased  artillery  force  acquitted  itself  mag- 
nificently in  support  of  the  advance,  and  tlie  enemy  broke 
before  the  determined  infantry,  which,  by  its  persistent 
fighting  of  the  past  weeks  and  the  dash  of  this  attack,  had 
overcome  his  will  to  resist.  The  Third  Corps  took  Aincre- 
ville,  Doulcon,  and  Andevanne,  and  the  Fifth  Corps  took 
Landres  et  St.  Georges  and  pressed  through  successive 
lines  of  resistance  to  Bayonville  and  Chennery.  On  the 
2d  the  First  Corps  joined  in  the  movement,  which  now 
became  an  impetuous  onslaught  that  could  not  be  stayed. 

SUCCESSFUL  ACCOMPLISHMENT. 
On  the  3d  advance  troops  surged  forward  in  pursuit, 
some  by  motor  trucks,  while  the  artillery  pressed  along 
the  country  roads  close  behind.    The  First  Corps  reached 
,  Authe  and  Chatillon-Sur-Bar,  the  Fifth  Corps,  Fosse  and 
Nouart,  and  the  Third  Corps  Halles,  penetrating  the  ene- 
my's line  to  a  depth  of  twelve  miles.    Our  large  caliber 
guns  had  advanced  and  were  skillfully  brought  into  posi- 
tion to  fire  upon  the  important  lines  at  Montmedy,  Lon- 
guyon,  and  Conflans.    Our  Third  Corps  crossed  the  Mouse 
on  the  5th  and  the  other  corps,  in  the  full  confidence  that 
the  day  was  theirs,  eagerly  cleared  the  way  of  machine 
guns  as  they  swept  northward,  maintaining  complete  co- 
ordination throughout.    On  the  6th,  a  division  of  the  First 
Corps  reached  a  point  on  the  Mouse  opposite   Sedan, 
twenty-five  miles  from  our  line  of  departure.    The  stra- 
tegical goal  which  was  our  highest  hope  was  gained.    We 
had  cut  the  enemy's  main  line  of  communications  and 
nothing  but  surrender  or  an  armistice  could  save  his  army 
from  complete  disaster. 

TROOPS  ENGAGED. 

In  all  forty  enemy  divisions  had  been  used  against  us 
in  the  Meuse-Argonne  battle.    Between  September  26  md 


74  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

November  6  we  took  26,059  prisoners  and  468  guns  on 
this  front.  Our  divisions  engaged  were  the  First,  Second, 
Third,  Fourth,  Fifth,  Twenty-sixth,  Twenty-eighth,  Twen- 
ty-ninth, Thirty-second,  Thirty-third,  Thirty-fifth,  Thirty- 
seventh,  Forty-second,  Seventy-seventh,  Seventy-eighth, 
Seventy-ninth,  Eightieth,  Eighty-second,  Eighty-ninth, 
Ninetieth,  and  Ninety-first.  Many  of  our  divisions  re- 
mained in  line  for  a  length  of  time  that  required  nerves 
of  steel,  while  others  were  sent  in  again  after  only  a  few 
days  of  rest  The  First,  Fifth,  Twenty-sixth,  Forty- 
second,  Seventy-seventh,  Eightieth,  Eighty-ninth,  and 
Ninetieth  were  in  the  line  twice.  Although  some  of  the 
divisions  were  fighting  their  first  battle,  they  soon  became 
equal  to  the  best. 

OPERATIONS  EAST  OF  THE  MEUSE. 

On  the  three  days  preceding  November  10,  the  Third, 
the  Second  Colonial,  and  the  Seventeenth  French  Corps 
fought  a  difficult  struggle  through  the  Mouse  HiUs  south 
of  Stenay  and  forced  the  enemy  into  the  plain.  Mean- 
while, my  plans  for  further  use  of  the  American  forces 
contemplated  an  advance  between  the  Mouse  and  the 
Moselle  in  the  direction  of  Longwy  by  the  First  Army, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  the  Second  Army  should  assure 
the  offensive  toward  the  rich  iron  fields  of  Briey.  These 
operations  were  to  be  followed  by  an  offensive  toward 
Chateau-Salins  east  of  the  Moselle,  thus  isolating  Metz. 
Accordingly,  attacks  on  the  American  front  had  been 
ordered  and  that  of  the  Second  Army  was  in  progress  on 
the  morning  of  November  11,  when  instructions  were  re- 
ceived that  hostilities  should  cease  at  11  o /clock  A.  M. 

At  this  moment  the  line  of  the  American  sector,  from 
right  to  left,  began  at  Port-Sur-Seille,  thence  across  the 
Moselle  to  Vandieres  and  through  the  Woevre  to  Bezon- 


GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY.  75 

vaux,  in  tlie  foothills  of  the  Meuse,  thence  along  to  the  foot- 
hills and  through  the  northern  edge  of  the  Woevre  forests 
to  the  Meuse  at  Mouzay,  thence  along  the  Meuse  connect- 
ing with  the  French  under  Sedan. 

RELATIONS  WITH  THE  ALLIES. 

Co-operation  among  the  Allies  has  at  all  times  been 
most  cordial.  A  far  greater  effort  has  been  put  forth  by 
the  Allied  armies  and  staffs  to  assist  us  than  could  have 
been  expected.  The  French  Government  and  army  have 
always  stood  ready  to  furnish  us  with  supplies,  equipment, 
and  transportation,  and  to  aid  us  in  every  way.  In  the 
towns  and  hamlets  wherever  our  troops  have  been  stationed 
or  billeted  the  French  people  have  everywhere  received 
them  more  as  relatives  and  intimate  friends  than  as  sol- 
diers of  a  foreign  army.  For  these  things  words  are  quite 
inadequate  to  express  our  gratitude.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  relations  growing  out  of  our  associations 
here  assure  a  permanent  friendship  between  the  two  peo- 
ples. Although  we  have  not  been  so  intimately  associated 
with  the  people  of  Great  Britain,  yet  their  troops  and  ours 
when  thrown  together  have  always  warmly  fraternized. 
The  reception  of  those  of  our  forces  who  have  passed 
through  England  and  of  those  who  have  been  stationed 
there  has  always  been  enthusiastic.  Altogether  it  has  been 
deeply  impressed  upon  us  that  the  ties  of  language  and 
blood  bring  the  British  and  ourselves  together  completely 
and  inseparably. 

STRENTGH. 

There  are  in  Europe  altogether,  including  a  regiment 
and  some  sanitary  units  with  the  Italian  army  and  the 
organizations  at  Murmansk,  also  including  those  en  route 
from  the  States,  approximately  2,053,347  men,  less  our 
losses.    Of  this  total,  there  are  in  France  1,338,169  com- 


76  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

batant  troops.  Forty  divisions  have  arrived,  of  whieh  tKe 
infantry  personnel  of  ten  have  been  used  as  replacements, 
leaving  30  divisions  now  in  France  organized  into  three 
armies  of  three  corps  each. 

The  losses  of  the  Americans  up  to  November  18  are : 
Killed  and  wounded,  36,145;  died  of  disease,  14,811;  deaths 
unclassified,  2,204;  wounded,  179,625;  prisoners,  2,163; 
missing,  1,160.  We  have  captured  about  44,000  prisoners 
and  1,400  guns,  howitzers  and  trench  mortars. 

WARM  APPRECIATION. 

The  duties  of  the  General  Staff,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
army  and  corps  staffs,  have  been  very  ably  performed. 
Especially  is  this  true  when  we  consider  the  new  and  diffi- 
cult problems  with  which  they  have  been  confronted.  This 
body  of  officers,  both  as  individuals  and  as  an  organization, 
have,  I  believe,  no  superiors  in  professional  ability,  in  effi- 
ciency, or  in  loyalty. 

Nothing  that  we  have  in  France  better  reflects  the 
efficiency  and  devotion  to  duty  of  Americans  in  general 
than  the  Service  of  Supply,  whose  personnel  is  thoroughly 
imbued  with  a  patriotic  desire  to  do  its  full  duty.  They 
have  at  all  times  fully  appreciated  their  responsibility  to 
the  rest  of  the  army  and  the  results  produced  have  been 
most  gratifying. 

SPECIAL  WORK  OF  DEPARTMENTS. 
Our  Medical  Corps  is  especially  entitled  to  praise  for 
the  general  effectiveness  of  its  work  both  in  hospital  and 
at  the  front.  Embracing  men  of  high  professional  attain- 
ments, and  splendid  women  devoted  to  their  calling  and 
untiring  in  their  efforts,  this  department  has  made  a  new 
record  for  medical  and  sanitary  proficiency. 
^  .,     The  Quartermaster  Department  has  had  difficult  and 


GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY.  77 

various  tasks,  but  it  has  more  than  met  all  demands  that 
have  been  made  upon  it.  Its  management  and  its  personnel 
have  been  exceptionally  efficient  and  deserve  every  pos- 
sible commendation. 

SPLENDID  TECHNICAL  SERVICE. 

As  to  the  more  technical  services,  the  able  personnel 
of  the  Ordnance  Department  in  France  has  splendidly  ful- 
filled its  functions,  both  in  procurement  and  in  forward- 
ing the  immense  quantities  of  ordnance  required.  The 
officers  and  men  and  the  young  women  of  the  Signal  Corps 
have  performed  their  duties  with  a  large  .conception  of 
the  problem  and  with  a  devoted  and  patriotic  spirit  to 
which  the  perfection  of  our  communications  daily  testify. 
While  the  Engineer  Corps  has  been  referred  to  in  another 
part  of  this  report,  it  should  be  further  stated  that  the 
work  has  required  large  vision  and  high  professional  skill, 
and  great  credit  is  due  their  personnel  for  the  high  profi- 
ciency that  they  have  constantly  maintained. 

Our  aviators  have  no  equals  in  daring  or  in  fighting 
ability  and  have  left  a  record  of  courageous  deeds  that 
win  ever  remain  a  brilliant  page  in  the  annals  of  our 
army.  While  the  Tank  Corps  has  had  limited  opportuni- 
ties its  personnel  has  responded  gallantly  on  every  possible 
occasion  and  has  shown  courage  of  the  highest  order. 

The  Adjutant  GeneraPs  Department  has  been  directed 
iwith  a  systematic  thoroughness  and  excellence  that  sur- 
passed any  previous  work  of  its  kind.  The  Inspector 
Creneral's  Department  has  risen  to  the  highest  standards 
and  throughout  has  ably  assisted  commanders  in  the 
enforcement  of  discipline.  The  able  pereonnel  of  the 
IJudge  Advocate  General's  Department  has  solved  with 
gudgment  and  wisdom  the  multitude  of  difficult  legal  prob- 


78  GENERAL  PERSHING'S  OWN  STORY. 

lems,  many  of  them  inyolving  questions  of  great  inter- 
national importance. 

TRIBUTE  TO  THE  PERSONNEL  OF  THE  VARIOUS 

BRANCHES. 

It  would  be  impossible  in  this  brief  preliminary  report 
to  do  justice  to  the  personnel  of  all  the  different  branches 
of  this  organization  which  I  shall  cover  in  detail  in  a  later 
report. 

The  navy  in  European  waters  has  at  all  times  most 
cordially  aided  the  army,  and  it  is  most  gratifying  to  report 
that  there  has  never  before  been  such  perfect  co-operation 
between  these  two  branches  of  the  service. 

As  to  Americans  in  Europe  not  in  the  military  serv- 
ices, it  is  the  greatest  pleasure  to  say  that,  both  in  official 
and  in  private  life,  they  are  intensely  patriotic  and  loyal, 
and  have  been  invariably  s}anpathetic  and  helpful  to  the 
army. 

Finally,  I  pay  the  supreme  tribute  to  our  officers  and 
soldiers  of  the  line.  When  I  think  of  their  heroism,  their 
patience  under  hardships,  their  unflinching  spirit  of  of- 
fensive action,  I  am  filled  with  emotion  which  I  am  unable 
to  express.  Their  deeds  are  immortal,  and  they  have 
earned  the  eternal  gratitude  of  our  country. 


CHAPTER  III. 
President  Wilson's  Review  of  the  War. 

Tboop  Movement  Dubixq  the  Year— Tribute  to  American  Soldiers— Splendid 
Spirit  op  the  Nation— Resume  the  Work  op  Peace}— Outline  op  Work  in 
Paris — Support  of  Nation  Urged. 

ON  DECEMBER  2,  1918,  just  prior  to  sailing  for 
Europe  to  take  part  in  the  Peace  Conference,  Presi- 
dent Wilson  addressed  Congress,  reviewing  the  work 
of  the  American  people,  soldiers,  sailors  and  civilians,  in  the 
World  War  which  had  been  brought  to  a  successful  con- 
clusion on  November  11th.  His  speech,  in  part,  follows: 
*'The  year  that  has  elapsed  since  I  last  stood  before 
you  to  fulfill  my  constitutional  duty  to  give  to  the  Congress 
from  time  to  time  information  on  the  state  of  the  Union 
has  been  so  crowded  with  great  events,  great  processes  and 
great  results  that  I  can  not  hope  to  give  you  an  adequate 
picture  of  its  transactions  or  of  the  far-reaching  changes 
which  have  been  wrought  in  the  life  of  our  Nation  and 
of  the  world.  You  have  yourselves  witnessed  these  things, 
as  I  have.  It  is  too  soon  to  assess  them ;  and  we  who  stand 
in  the  midst  of  them  and  are  part  of  them  are  less  quali- 
fied than  men  of  another  generation  will  be  to  say  what 
they  mean  or  even  what  they  have  been.  But  some  great 
outstanding  facts  are  unmistakable  and  constitute  in  a 
sense  part  of  the  public  business  with  which  it  is  our  duty 
to  deal.  To  state  them  is  to  set  the  stage  for  the  legis- 
lative and  executive  action  which  must  grow  out  of  them 
and  which  we  have  yet  to  shape  and  determine. 

TROOP  MOVEMENT  DURING  THE  YEAR. 
**A  year  ago  we  had  sent  145,918  men  overseas.    Since 
then  we  have  sent  1,950,513,  an  average  of  162,542  each 
month,  the  number  in  fact  rising  in  May  last  to  245,951, 

(9 


go  PRESIDENT  WILSON'S  REVIEW  OP  THE  WAR.  / 

in  June  to  278,760,  in  July  to  307,182  and  continuing  tO 
reach  similar  figures  in  August  and  September— in  August 
289,570  and  in  September  257,438.  No  such  movement  of 
troops  ever  took  place  before,  across  3,000  miles  of  sea, 
followed  by  adequate  equipment  and  supplies,  and  carried 
safely  through  extraordinary  dangers  of  attack,  dangers 
which  were  alike  strange  and  infinitely  difficult  to  guard 
against.  In  all  this  movement  only  758  men  were  lost  by 
enemy  attacks,  630  of  whom  were  upon  a  single  English 
transport  which  was  sunk  near  the  Orkney  Islands. 

*'I  need  not  tell  you  what  lay  back  of  this  great  move- 
ment of  men  and  material.  It  is  not  invidious  to  say  that 
back  of  it  lay  a  supporting  organization  of  the  industries 
of  the  country  and  of  all  its  productive  activities  more 
icomplete,  more  thorough  in  method  and  effective  in  results, 
more  spirited  and  unanimous  in  purpose  and  effort  than 
any  other  great  belligerent  had  ever  been  able  to  effect. 
We  profited  greatly  by  the  experience  of  the  nations  whicK 
had  already  been  engaged  for  nearly  three  years  in  the 
exigent  and  exacting  business,  their  every  resource  and 
every  proficiency  taxed  to  the  utmost.  "We  were  the  pupils. 
But  we  learned  quickly  and  acted  with  a  promptness  and 
a  readiness  of  co-operation  that  justify  our  great  pride 
that  we  were  able  to  serve  the  world  with  imparalleled 
energy  and  quick  accomplishment. 

TRIBUTE  TO  AMERICAN  SOLDIERS. 

^*But  it  is  not  the  physical  scale  and  executive  effi- 
ciency of  preparation,  supply,  equipment  and  dispatch 
that  I  would  dwell  upon,  but  the  mettle  and  quality  of  the 
officers  and  men  we  sent  over  and  of  the  sailors  who  kept 
the  seas,  and  the  spirit  of  the  Kation  that  stood  behind 
them.  No  soldiers,  or  sailors,  ever  proved  themselves  more 
jquickly  ready  for  the  test  of  battle  or  acquitted  themselves 


w  a 

^  .2 


fci 


til  o 

^  bo 

rj  to 

0  is 


O   <u 
H  is 

p.   o 

Pi    (U 

Pi  >. 

0"^ 


-  -S 

is 


O   M^ 


O 


^    OH 

gll 


g 


"^'ry 


Africa  and  the  World  Democracy 


HOW  AFRICA   WAS   DIVIDED   UP   AMONG    THE  NATIONS 
OP    EUROPE    BEFORE    THE   WAR 


Country 
British  Empire 

France    

Germany   

Portugal    

Italy    


Area 

Sq.  Miles 

3,700,000 

4,641,000 

931,000 

749,000 

693,000 


Populat'n 
52,325,000 
29,577,000 
13,420,000 
8,244,000 
1,579,000 


Area 
Country  3q.  Miles    Populat*n 

Belgium    (Belgian 

Congo)    909,000     15,000,000 

Spain    88,000         660,000 

INDEPENDENT    STATES 

Abyssinia   432,000      8,000,000 

Liberia    .< 40,000       1,800,000 


Used  by  permission  of  the  "Crisis,"  New  York. 


ho 

r 

am  m 
o   o  -o 

fa   5 


> 


I 


a 


PRESIDENT  WILSON'S  REVIEW  OP  THE  WAR.  81 

with  more  splendid  courage  and  achievement  when  put  to 
the  test  Those  of  us  who  played  some  part  in  directing 
the  great  processes  by  which  the  war  was  pushed  irre- 
sistibly forward  to  the  final  triumph  may  now  forget  all 
that  and  delight  our  thoughts  with  the  story  of  what  our 
men  did.  Their  officers  understood  the  grim  and  exacting 
task  they  had  undertaken  and  performed  with  audacity, 
efficiency,  and  unhesitating  courage  that  touch  the  story 
of  convoy  and  battle  with  imperishable  distinction  at  every 
turn,  whether  the  enterprise  were  great  or  small— from 
their  chiefs,  Pershing  and  Sims,  down  to  the  youngest 
lieutenant;  and  their  men  were  worthy  of  them— such  men 
as  hardly  need  to  be  commanded,  and  go  to  their  terrible 
adventure  blithely  and  with  the  quick  intelligence  of  those 
who  know  just  what  it  is  they  would  accomplish.  I  am 
proud  to  be  the  fellow-countryman  of  men  of  such  stuff 
and  valor.  Those  of  us  who  stayed  at  home  did  our  duty; 
the  war  could  not  have  been  won  or  the  gallant  men  who 
fought  it  given  their  opportunity  to  win  it  otherwise;  but 
for  many  a  long  day  we  shall  think  ourselves  ^accursed 
we  were  not  there,  and  hold  our  manhoods  cheap  while 
any  speaks  that  fought'  with  these  at  St.  Mihiel  or  Thierry. 
The  memory  of  those  days  of  triumphant  battle  will  go 
with  these  fortunate  men  to  their  graves;  and  each  will 
have  his  favorite  memory,  ^Old  men  forget;  yet  all  shall 
be  forgot,  but  he'll  remember  with  advantages  what  feats 
lie  did  that  day!' 

^^What  we  all  thank  God  for  with  deepest  gratitude 
is  that  our  men  went  in  force  into  the  line  of  battle  just 
at  the  critical  moment,  and  threw  their  fresh  strength  into 
the  ranks  of  freedom  in  time  to  turn  the  whole  tide  and 
sweep  of  the  fateful  struggle— turn  it  once  for  all,  so  that 
henceforth  it  was  back,  back,  back  for  their  enemies, 
always  back,  never  again  forward!  After  that  it  was  only 
a  scant  four  months  before  the  commanders  of  the  Central 


82       •    PRESIDENT  WILSON'S  REVIEW  OP  THE  WAR. 

empires  knew  themselves  beaten,  and  now  their  verv  e/ 
pires  are  m  liquidation!  ^^^  ^^' 

SPLENDID  SPIRIT  OF  THE  NATION 
"And  throughout  it  all  how  fine  the  spirit  of  tha 

wt^l^kw"^"^  ''  ^"^^^^^'  wha^uSSi^fJal 
What  elejation  of  purpose  ran  through  all  its  splendid 

tZZfT'^'t'  '''  ""*^^^^  accomplishment.  ?we 
said  that  those  of  us  who  stayed  at  home  to  do  the  woJk 

b  en  STtir  "'  T""''  "^'^  ''^^'^  -«^  that  we  had 
been  with  the  men  whom  we  sustained  by  our  labor-  but 
we  can  never  be  ashamed.    It  has  been  an  inspirShh"^ 
to  be  here  m  the  midst  of  fine  men  who  bad  tur"el  asw! 
from  every  private  interest  of  their  own  and  devoted  the 
whole  of  their  trained  capacity  to  the  rsks  tharsi^^^^ 
the  sinews  of  the  whole  great  undertaking!    The  Slot 
ism,  the  unselfishness,  the  thoroughgoing  devotion  and  dt 
tmguished  capacity  that  marked  fhfir  tf ilson^e  ab-s  day 
after  day,  month  after  month,  have  made  them  fit  mates 
and  comrades  of  the  men  in  the  trenches  and  on  thrsea 
And  not  the  men  here  in  Washington  only.    Theyhave  but 
directed  the  vast  achievement.     Throughout  innumlrable 
factories  upon  innumerable  farms,  in  the  depthsTcoal 
mines  and  iron  mines  and  copper  mines,  wherever  the  stuffs 
of  industry  were  to  be  obtained  and  prepared,  in  the  sMp! 
faltrt  ^'  '"'Tf '  ''  *'^  docks,  on  the  ;ea,  in  eve 'y 

vied  with  each  other  to  do  their  part  and  do  it  well.  They 
can  look  any  man-at-arms  in  the  face,  and  say,  we  also 
strove  to  win  and  gave  the  best  that  was  in  us  to  mike  our 
fleets  and  armies  sure  of  their  triumph! 

PATRIOTIC  WOMEN  OF  AMERICA. 
"And  what  shall  we  say  of  the  women-of  their  instant 
mtelhgence,  quickening  every  task  that  they  touched;  their 


PRESIDENT  WILSON'S  REVIEW  OF  THE  WAR.  83 

capacity  for  organization  and  co-operation,  which  gave 
their  action  discipline  and  enhanced  the  effectiveness  of 
everything  they  attempted;  their  aptitude  at  tasks  to  which 
they  had  never  before  set  their  hands;  their  utter  self- 
sacrificing  alike  in  what  they  did  and  in  what  they  gave? 
Their  contribution  to  the  great  result  is  beyond  appraisal. 
They  have  added  a  new  luster  to  the  annals  of  American 
womanhood. 

*'The  least  tribute  we  can  pay  them  is  to  make  them 
the  equals  of  m.en  in  political  rights,  as  they  have  proved 
themselves  their  equals  in  every  field  of  practical  work 
they  have  entered,  whether  for  themselves  or  for  their 
country.  These  great  days  of  completed  achievement 
w^ould  be  sadly  marred  were  we  to  omit  that  act  of  justice. 
Besides  the  immense  practical  services  they  have  rendered, 
the  women  of  the  country  have  been  the  moving  spirits  in 
the  systematic  economies  by  which  our  people  have  volun- 
tarily assisted  to  supply  the  suffering  peoples  of  the  world 
and  the  armies  upon  every  front  with  food  and  everything 
else  that  we  had  that  might  serve  the  common  cause.  The 
details  of  such  a  story  can  never  be  fully  written,  but  we 
carry  them  in  our  hearts  and  thank  God  that  we  can  say 
we  are  the  kinsmen  of  such. 

RESUME  THE  WORK  OF  PEACE. 

**And  now  we  are  sure  of  the  great  triumph  for  which 
every  sacrifice  was  made.  It  has  come,  come  in  its  com- 
pleteness, and  with  the- pride  and  inspiration  of  these  days 
of  achievement  quick  within  us  we  turn  to  the  tasks  of 
peace  again— a  peace  secure  against  the  violence  of  irre- 
sponsible monarchs  and  ambitious  military  coteries  and 
made  ready  for  a  new  order,  for  new  foundations  of  jus- 
tice and  fair  dealing. 

^^"We  are  about  to  give  order  aud  organization  to  this 


84  PRESIDENT  WILSON 'S  EB VIEW  OF  THE  WAR. 

peace,  not  only  for  ourselves,  but  for  the  other  people,  of 
the  world  as  well,  so  far  as  they  will  suffer  us  to  servTtlem 

merely  '"*'"  '''"'  "'  '"^'  ""''  '''^'''''^  «^^'" 

"So  far  as  our  domestic  affairs  are  concerned  the 

problem  of  our  return  to  peace  is  a  problem  of  ecoroiSc 

o"   for  us  thf  r'^'^r^"'     ^'^*  P^«^^^-  -  ^-«  ^^ 
ous  for  us  than  It  may  turn  out  to  be  for  the  nations  which 

have  suffered  the  disarrangements  and  the  losses  of  war 

longer  than  we.    Our  people,  moreover,  do  not  wait  to  bl 

coached  and  led.    They  know  their  own  business,Tre  quick 

and  resourceful  at  every  readjustment,  definie  in'pT^ 

pose  and  se  f-rehant  in  action.    Any  leading  strings  w^ 

might  seek  to  put  them  in  would  speedily  become  hope- 

Ind  Lr-'"  ''""'^  ''^^  "^"^'^  P^^  -  ^«-«-  *o  them 
and  go  their  own  way.  AH  that  we  can  do  as  their  legis- 
lative and  executive  servants  is  to  mediate  the  process  of 
change  here,  there  and  elsewhere  as  we  may.  I  have  heard 
much  counsel  as  to  the  plans  that  should  be  formed  aM 
personally  conducted  to  a  happy  consummation,  bTfroin 
no  quarter  have  I  seen  any  general  scheme  of  ^econs  rZ 

spirited  business  men  and  self-reHant  laborers  to  accept 
with  due  pliancy  and  obedience.  ^ 

ORGANIZATION  FOR  WAR. 
"While  the  war  lasted  we  set  up  many  agencies  bv 
which  to  direct  the  industries  of  the  country  L  the  services 

L7y:r:VZ  ^^^^  *^  ^^°'^-'  by  wMch  to  mal 
sure  of  an  abundant  supply  of  the  materials  needed   bv 
which  to  check  midertakings  that  could  for  the  Ze  be 
ablfrwaf  b  ^"ttr^*«  *^-  that  were  most  s"4e- 

S^t^oJltJ  ""^'"^  *'  ^'^  ^^^  *^^  purchasing  depart- 
ments of  the  government  a  certain  control  over  L  prices 


PRESIDENT  WILSON'S  REVIEW  OP  THE  WAR.  85 

of  essential  articles  and  materials,  by  which  to  restrain 
trade  with  alien  enemies,  make  the  most  of  the  available 
shipping  and  systematize  financial  transactions,  both  pub- 
lic and  private,  so  that  there  would  be  no  unnecessary 
conflict  or  confusion— by  which,  in  short,  to  put  every  ma- 
terial energy  of  the  country  in  harness  to  draw  the  common 
load  and  make  of  us  one  team  in  accomplishment  of  a 
great  task. 

''But  the  moment  we  knew  the  armistice  to  have  been 
signed  we  took  the  harness  off.  Raw  materials  upon  which 
the  government  had  kept  its  hand  for  fear  there  should 
not  be  enough  for  the  industries  that  supplied  the  armies 
have  been  released,  and  put  into  the  general  market  again. 
Great  industrial  plants  whose  whole  output  and  machinery 
had  been  taken  over  for  the  uses  of  the  government  have 
been  set  free  to  return  to  the  uses  to  which  they  were  put 
before  the  war.  It  has  not  been  possible  to  remove  so 
readily  or  so  quickly  the  control  of  foodstuffs  and  of  ship- 
ping, because  the  world  has  still  to  be  fed  from  our  gran- 
aries and  the  ships  are  still  needed  to  send  supplies  to  our 
men  oversea  and  to  bring  the  men  back  as  fast  as  the  dis- 
turbed conditions  on  the  other  side  of  the  water  permit; 
but  even  there  restrains  are  being  relaxed  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, and  more  and  more  as  the  weeks  go  by. 

''Never  before  have  there  been  agencies  in  existence 
in  this  country  which  knew  so  much  of  the  field  of  supply 
of  labor,  and  of  industry  as  the  War  Industries  Board, 
the  War  Trade  Board,  the  Labor  Department,  the  Pood 
Administration  and  the  Fuel  Administration  have  known 
since  their  labors  became  thoroughly  systematized;  and 
they  have  not  been  isolated  agencies;  they  have  been 
directed  by  men  which  represented  the  permanent  depart- 
ments of  the  government  and  so  have  been  the  centers  of 
unified  and  co-operative  action.    It  has  been  the  policy 


86  PRESIDENT  WILSON'S  EBVIEW  OF  THE  WAR. 

of  the  Executive,  therefore,  since  the  armistice  was  as- 
sured (which  IS  in  effect  a  complete  submission  of  the 
enemy)  to  put  the  knowledge  of  these  bodies  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  business  men  of  the  country  and  to  offer  their 
mtelligent  mediation  at  every  point  and  in  every  matter 
where  it  was  desired.    It  is  surprising  how  fast  the  process 
of  return  to  a  peace  footing  has  moved  in  the  three  weeks 
smce  the  fighting  stopped.     It  promises  to  outrun  any 
inquiry  that  may  be  instituted  and  any  aid  that  may  be 
offered.    It  will  not  be  easy  to  direct  it  any  better  than 
It  will  direct  Itself.     The  American  business  man  is  of 
quick  initiative.     ... 

OUTLINE  OF  WORK  IN  PARIS. 
''I  welcome  this  occasion  to  announce  to  the  Congress 
my  purpose  to  join  in  Paris  the  representatives  of  the 
governments  with  which  we  have  been  associated  in  the 
war  against  the  Central  Empires  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
cussing with  them  the  main  features  of  the  treaty  of  peace 
i  realize  the  great  inconveniences  that  will  attend  my  leav- 
ing the  country,  particularly  at  this  time,  but  the  con- 
clusion that  it  was  my  paramount  duty  to  go  has  been 
forced  upon  me  by  considerations  which  I  hope  will  seem 
as  conclusive  to  you  as  they  have  seemed  to  me. 

"The  Allied  governments  have  accepted  the  bases  of 
peace  which  I  outlined  to  the  Congress  on  the  8th  of  Janu- 
ary last,  as  the  Central  Empires  also  have,  and  very  rea- 
sonably desire  my  personal  counsel  in  their  interpretation 
and  application,  and  it  is  highly  desirable  that  I  should 
give  It,  m  order  that  the  sincere  desire  of  our  government 
to  contribute  without  selfish  purpose  of  any  kind  to  settle- 
ments that  will  be  of  common  benefit  to  aU  the  nations  con- 
cerned may  be  made  fully  manifest.     The  peace  settle- 
ments which  are  now  to  be  agreed  upon  are  of  trans- 


PRESIDENT  WILSON'S  BEVIEW  OP  THE  WAR,  87 

cendent  importance  both  to  us  and  to  the  rest  of  the  world, 
and  I  know  of  no  business  or  interest  which  should  take 
precedence  of  them.  The  gallant  men  of  our  armed  forces 
on  land  and  sea  have  consciously  fought  for  the  ideals 
which  they  knew  to  be  the  ideals  of  their  country;  I  have 
sought  to  express  those  ideals;  they  have  accepted  my 
statements  of  them  as  the  substance  of  their  own  thought 
and  purpose,  as  the  associated  governments  have  accepted 
them ;  I  owe  it  to  them  to  see  to  it,  so  far  as  in  me  lies, 
that  no  false  or  mistaken  interpretation  is  put  upon  them, 
and  no  possible  effort  omitted  to  realize  them.  It  is  now 
my  duty  to  play  my  full  part  in  m.aking  good  what  they 
offered  their  life's  blood  to  obtain.  I  can  think  of  no  call 
to  service  which  could  transcend  this.    .    •    . 

SUPPORT  OF  NATION  URGED. 
''May  I  not  hope,  gentlemen  of  the  Congress,  that  in 
the  delicate  tasks  I  shall  have  to  perform  on  the  other 
side  of  the  sea  in  my  efforts  truly  and  faithfully  to  inter- 
pret the  principles  and  purposes  of  the  country  we  love, 
I  may  have  the  encouragement  and  the  added  strength  of 
your  united  support?  I  realize  the  magnitude  and  diffi- 
culty of  the  duty  I  am  undertaking.  I  am  poignantly 
aware  of  its  grave  responsibilities.  I  am  the  servant  of 
the  Nation.  I  can  have  no  private  thought  or  purpose  of 
my  own  in  performing  such  an  errand.  I  go  to  give  the 
best  that  is  in  me  to  the  common  settlements  which  I  must 
now  assist  in  arriving  at  in  conference  with  the  other  work- 
ing heads  of  the  associated  governments.  I  shall  count 
upon  your  friendly  countenance  and  encouragement.  I 
shall  not  be  inaccessible.  The  cables  and  the  wireless  will 
render  me  available  for  any  counsel  or  service  you  may 
desire  of  me,  and  I  shall  be  happy  in  the  thought  that  I 
am  constantly  in  touch  with  the  weighty  matters  of  do- 


88 


PRESIDENT  WILSON'S  REVIEW  OP  THE  WAR 


mestic  policy  with  which  we  shall  h^^.  *    ^    , 
make  iny  absence  as  brief  a.  !      -k,       *^  ^'^-    ^  ^^^ 
return  with  the  hauDv  a  ^    ''''^'  ^""^  «^^^1  tope  to 

to  translate  into  aS  S  ™?-?1  'I  ^^^  ^^^  Po^sib  e 
has  striven. "  ^  ^"^^^^  ''^^^^s  for  which  America 

^PRESIDENT  WILSON'S  DIPLOMATIC  MISSION 

broke  thrtTa'ditionsSlfeihaTr^';  '*''"'^"*  ^"-- 
iimself  the  deep  respoTsSSrof  1"T' '°^  *^^^  "P«° 
He  went  as  the  represeSatS;  ^f  ""  diplomatic  mission, 
ent  powers  to  coX  S  /b!  "'"'  '^  *^^  ^^^^*  ''^^er- 
-ats  of  Europe  to  frTme  not'^onr"  '"'  ''''''''  ^^''- 
terminate  the  World  W^r  but' Tf^  ^  l?'"  '^  j"^"'^^  *« 
I'eague  of  Nations,  LnceLth  ~  i?"'"'^^'-*''  °^g«"i^e  a 
impossibility.         '  '''''''*«^*^  ^^J^mg  such  cataclysms  an 


CHAPTER  IV. 
THE  FLASH  THAT  SET  THE  WORLD  AFLAME. 

Teutons  Find  in  a  Muedeb  the  Excuse  fob  Wab— Gebmany  INvIpieed  by  Am- 
bitions   FOB  WOBLD   CONTEOL — ThE    StBUGGLE  FOB   COMMEBCIAL    SUPBEMACY   A 

Factob — ^The  Undeblyinq  Motives. 

THE  assassination  of  the  Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand,  heir 
apparent  to  the  throne  of  Austria,  together  with  his  wife, 
in  Bosnia,  during  the  last  days  of  June,  1914,  is  com- 
monly regarded  as  the  blow  which  forged  the  chain  that  bound 
the  European  powers  in  bloody  warfare.    The  tragedy  was  the 
signal  for  putting  on  the  world  stage  the  greatest  war  play  of 

all  times. 

When  Austria,  regarding  the  murder  of  the  Archduke  as 
a  National  affront,  precipitated  the  conflict  which  has  con- 
vulsed the  universe,  she  marked  the  way  easy  for  Imperial  Ger- 
many to  put  into  effect  a  long-contemplated  plan  for  territo- 
rial expansion,  and  to  wage  a  warfare  so  insidious,  so  brutal 
and  so  ruthless  in  its  character  as  to  amaze  the  civilized  world. 

Word-pictures  were  drawn,  so  to  speak,  of  a  mighty 
nation  striving  to  burst  iron  bands  that  were  slowly  strangling 
her,  and  her  perfectly  natiu-al  wish  to  find  outlets  for  her 
rapidly  growing  population  and  commerce.  Germany  sought 
to  obtain  "a  place  in  the  sun,"  to  use  one  of  the  Kaiser's  most 
unfortunate  expressions,  and  the  world  soon  found  that  the 
"place"  included  the  territory  embracing  a  few  ports  on  the 
English  channel,  with  control  of  Holland  and  Belgium, 
Poland,  the  Balkan  countries,  a  big  slice  of  Asia  Minor, 
Egypt,  English  and  French  colonies  in  Africa,  not  to  mention 
remote  possibilities* 

Germany's  ambitions  may  have  been  laudable,  but  her 
methods  of  trying  to  satisfy  these  ambitions  were  not  such  as 


90      TH  E  FLASH  THAT  SET  THE  WORLD  AFLAME. 

CO  either  gain  for  her  the  "solar  warmth"  which  she  sought  t^ 

wm  or  ga.n  for  her  the  friendship  of  the  nations  oHhecwlH 

Austria  claimed  that  Servia,  as  a  Nation,  was  responsible 

S[i:^a3toTr  ?  *'^  ^^^'""^  ^  ^-»--    S"  "nfan 
cS  nTalf '?:'^'  "^'T  '^™^"''^  "^^*  t*^^  Servians 

acrtre^^rhe^Sl^r™  '^'^"'  ^^^  ^"^  "^^^^ 
THE  FOUR  GROUPS. 
Austria's  attack  threatened  to  distm-b  the  balance  of 

ZZ's^7::T  *' n*""'  *^.  ^^"^^^'^^  -«  dividedtto  four 
groups.   The  close  alhance  of  the  central  powers-Germanv 

bi  T  T   t"^'f ""'  *'  "  *'^  ^"P^'  Alliance  odS 
bund,  the  Triple  Entente,  or  understanding  between  Great 

.l^SinwXT  df  ""^  *'^  ^"^"^^  ^^«"P  -hos:"neSrl 
rty  and  mtegrity  had  been  guaranteed,  or  at  least  recognized- 
Belgium,  Demnark,  Holland  and  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxeax- 
bourg,  sandwiched  in  between  Germany,  France  and  BeSZ 
together  with  Switzerland.    The  fourth  gi-oup  includef  7e' 
Balkan  nations:  Bulgaria,  Serria,  Montenegro!  Greece  Tur! 
key  and  Roumania,  all  drawn  close  to  Rusfia    NorwIV  and 
Sweden,  and  the  Iberian  nations,  Spain  and  Portugr    The 
mcrease  m  the  power  of  one  of  these  groups  would  at  any  tfme 
have  been  sufficient  to  precipitate  a  war,  but  in  the  movement 
of  Austria  agamst  Servia  there  entered  a  racial  element 

flood  of  S  .         '^1*T-  .  ^''''^''  '^'''  *^^  «^ti°"  let  l«ose  the 
W  ri     'f  "^^'^  "^ai^^tion  had  been  holding  in  check. 

Germlnl  .    1/  "J"  '^''^'  ''  ''  ^^'^  *°  understand  how 

Germany  could  precipitate  a  world  conflict  by  attempting  to 
keep  open  the  way  to  the  near  East,  and  controlling  the  mar- 
kets as  agamst  Britain,  France  and  Russia.  Back  of  all  thL 
was  the  question  of  commercial  supremacy,  Germany  show  ng 


THE  FLASH  THAT  SET  THE  WOELD  AFLAME.      ^1 

her  intention  of  keeping  the  way  open  to  the  near  East  and 
dominating  the  markets  as  against  Britain,  France  and  Russia. 
Russia  could  not  stand  by  and  see  one  of  her  Slavonic 
wards  crushed,  and  France,  which  held  the  Russian  national 
debt,  prepared  to  support  her  debtor,  whereupon  Germany, 
threatened  on  both  sides,  struck.  In  doing  so  the  Kaiser  ig- 
nored the  rights  of  the  small  neutral  states,  invaded  Belgium 
and  brought  his  armies  within  threatening  distance^  of  Eng- 
land. France  prepared  to  defend  her  coimtry  against  Ger- 
many, and  England,  alarmed  by  the  move  of  Germany  and 
sympathizing  with  Belgium,  stinick  back  to  avert  the  disaster 
which  she  felt  must  follow  the  German  movement,  which  had 
been  threatening  for  years. 

REGARDED  EACH  OTHER  WITH  SUSPICION. 
All  attempts  to  maintain  a  balance  of  power  between  the 
European  countries  were  from  time  to  time  jeopardized  by 
various  developments.  "Ihe  elements  in  the  continental  group 
struggled  against  each  other,  and  the  Nations,  while  seemingly 
at  rest,  regarded  each  other  with  suspicion.  One  of  the  imder- 
lying  forces  that  the  world  knew  must  at  some  time  be  felt  was 
of  racial  origin.  The  historical  explanations  of  the  war  would 
involve  the  retelling  of  ahnost  everything  that  has  happened 
in  Europe  for  more  than  a  century. 

But  it  is  necessary  to  the  long  train  of  evil  consequences 
which  have  followed  the  interference  of  other  powers  in  the 
settlement  of  affairs  between  Russia  and  Turkey  after  the  war 
of  1877,  when  Russia  was  victorious.  Russia  and  Tui'key  had 
agreed  upon  a  large  Bulgaria  and  an  enlarged  and  independ- 
ent Servia,  but  at  the  Berlin  Congress,  which  Austria  had  taken 
the  initiative  in  calling,  Austria  showed  that  she  wished  to  have 
as  much  as  possible  of  this  Christian  territory  of  Southeastern 
Europe  kept  under  the  domination  or  nominal  authority  of 
Turkey.  Austria  feared  Russia's  influence  with  the  new  coun- 
tries of  Servia,  Roumania,  Bulgaria  and  Montenegro,  and 


92     THE  FLASH  THAT  SET  THE  WORLD  AFLAME. 

therefore  she  desired  to  have  this  territory  remain  Turkish  by 
influence,  to  the  end  that  she  might  some  day  acquire  part  or 
all  of  it  for  herself . 

One  of  the  articles  of  the  agreement  of  Berlin  turned 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  over  to  Austria  for  temporary  occu- 
pation and  management.  Austria  was  a  trustee  of  the  country 
which  lies  between  Servia  and  the  Adriatic  sea,  and  while  Aus- 
tria's management  was  efficient,  Servia  looked  forward  to  the 
time  when  a  union  could  be  effected  with  Bosnia,  which  would 
provide  Servia  with  an  outlet  to  the  sea. 

THE  SERVIANS  EMBITTERED. 
But  when  Russia  fell  humiUated  by  the  Japanese  and  the 
(Young  Turks  reformed  their  government,  and  there  was  pros- 
pect that  the  Turks  might  demand  the  evacuation  of  Bosnia  by 
Austria,  the  powers  that  had  engaged  in  the  Berhn  treaty  were 
informed  that  Austria  had  decided  to  make  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina a  part  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire.  The  Ser- 
vians were  embittered,  because  this  stood  in  the  way  of  their 
attaining  their  ideals,  and  their  country  was  landlocked. 

With  this  bitterness  rankhng  in  her  national  breast,  Servia 
joined  forces  with  Bulgaria,  Greece  and  Montenegro  to  drive 
the  Turks  out  of  Europe.  The  larger  powers,  including  Aus- 
tria, tried  to  prevent  the  action,  but  the  heroic  Balkan  struggle 
is  a  matter  of  history.  Servia  was  to  have  secured  as  a  share 
of  the  conquered  territory  a  portion  of  Albania,  on  the  Adri- 
atic. This  would  have  compensated  her  for  the  loss  of  Bosnia, 
but  the  great  powers,  led  by  Austria,  stepped  in,  and  a  plan 
was  devised  of  makmg  Albania  an  independent  state  or  princi- 
pality, with  a  German  prince  to  rule  over  it. 

The  Servians  were  bitter,  and  both  Servia  and  Greece 
demanded  of  Bulgaria  portions  of  the  territory  acquired  in  the 
.war  and  which  had  originally  been  assigned  to  Bulgaria  as  her 
share.  Bulgaria  stood  upon  her  technical  rights  and  precipi- 
tated the  last  Balkan  war,  which  was  really  made  possible,  or 


THE  FLASH  THAT  SET  THE  WORLD  AFLAME.      93 

probable,  by  the  Austrian  policy.  When  the  war  was  con° 
eluded  Servia  had  acquired  more  territory  to  the  south,  but  she 
remained  a  landlocked  country,  with  Bosnia,  Montenegro  and 
'Albania  stretching  between  her  and  the  Adriatic  sea. 

This  was  the  situation  when  the  assassination  of  tHe  Arch- 
duke Ferdinand  and  his  wife  occurred  in  Bosnia.  The  Arch- 
duke was,  in  effect,  a  joint  ruler  with  the  Emperor  Franz 
Joseph,  who  was  nearly  84  years  of  age,  and  the  entire  world 
realized  that  great  events  were  likely  to  follow  the  killing  of 
the  heir  apparent  to  the  Austro-Hungarian  throne.  The  mur- 
der was  committed  by  a  young  Servian  fanatic,  and  Austria 
determined  to  hold  Servia  responsible  for  the  murder,  and 
therefore  presented  her  now-famous  ultimatum. 
NO  CAUSE  FOR  WAR. 
Students  of  history  hold  that  if  there  had  been  a  proper 
respect  for  the  commendable  desire  of  the  Christian  peoples  in 
European  Turkey  to  throw  off  the  Turkish  yoke  and  become 
self-governing  states,  there  would  have  been  no  cause  for  war, 
so  far  as  relates  to  Servia  and  the  situation  which  precipitated 
the  conflict.  There  would  have  been  developed  a  series  of 
peaceful  and  progressive  countries  of  the  non-military  type  of 
Denmark,  Sweden  and  Holland. 

A  wiser  treatment  of  the  Balkan  problem  might  have 
averted  the  war,  but  it  could  not  have  set  aside  racial  differ- 
ences, nor  could  it  have  ended  the  curse  of  militarism  or  set  at 
rest  the  distrust  and  fear  which  it  promotes. 

The  end  of  European  militarism  might  have  come  about, 
however,  through  a  better  understanding  between  Germany 
and  France.  This  might  have  been  arrived  at  years  ago  if 
Germany  had  opened  the  Alsace-Lorraine  question,  and  had 
rearranged  the  boundary  line  between  the  two  countries  so  that 
the  French-speaking  communities  lost  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  be  ceded  back  to  France.  The  cost  of  maintaining  the 
feud  over  Alsace-Lorraine  has  been  a  burden  to  both  France 


94     THE  FLASH  THAT  SET  THE  WORLD  AFLAME. 

and  Germany,  and  the  progress  which  Germany  has  made  in 
world  affairs,  despite  the  burden  of  militarism  which  she  has 
carried,  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  century.  And  the  situation 
compelled  France  to  maintain  a  defensive  military  organiza- 
tion which  was  as  great  a  burden  to  her  and  barrier  to  world 
peace  as  the  mihtary  burden  of  Germany. 

STRAIN  BETWEEN  GERMANY  AND  RUSSIA. 
Whether  Germany  conspired  to  bring  on  the  war  so  that 
she  could  wage  a  campaign  of  aggression  has  not  yet  been 
made  clear,  but  the  strain  between  Germany  and  Russia  had 
been  growmg  for  some  time,  and  the  assassination  of  the  Teu- 
tomc  heir,  Francis  Ferdinand,  by  a  ward  of  Russia,  created  an 
occasion  which  gave  Germany  an  opportunity  to  fight,  without 
being  compelled  to  directly  precipitate  the  conflict.  Russia 
could  do  naught  else  but  come  to  the  aid  of  Servia,  and  Ger- 
many by  reason  of  her  alliance  with  Austria  must  aid  the  latteE 
coimtry. 

Germany  anticipated  the  entry  of  Italy  into  the  conflict 
as  the  third  member  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  but  Italy  did  not 
regard  Germany's  action  as  defensive  and  declined  to  aid  Aus- 
tria. Germany  had  made  overtures  to  Great  Britain,  but  Eng- 
land had  an  understanding  with  France,  which  was  in  the 
nature  of  a  limited  alliance,  and  Germany  might  have  kept 
England  out  of  the  struggle;  but  Germany  proceeded  with  a 
plan  to  invade  France  by  way  of  Belgium,  which  was  in  viola- 
tion of  international  agreement  establishing  Belgium's  neu- 
trality and  independence.    Germany  had  nothing  to  gain  by 
choosing  the  Belgium  route,  for  the  fact  is  that  even  had  the 
Belgian  government  approved  the  movement,  there  must  have 
been  a  French  counter-movement,  which  would  have  made  Bel- 
gium the  theatre  of  war  just  the  same. 

Pan-Germanism  has  been  described  as  one  of  the  under- 
lying motives  in  the  world  war,  and  Pan-Slavism  has  always 
opposed  Pan-Germanism.    Pan-Germanism  is  described  as  a 


THE  FLASH  THAT  SET  THE  WOELD  AFLAME.     95 

well-defined  policy  or  movement  which  seeks  the  common  wel- 
fare of  the  Germanic  peoples  of  all  Europe  and  the  advance 
of  Teutonic  culture,  while  Pan-Slavism,  represented  by  Rus- 
sia, seeks  in  the  main  the  uniting  of  all  the  Slavonic  folk  for 
common  welfare.  The  contact  between  these  two  has  always 
been  seething,  and  the  racial  differences  made  burdensome  the 
arbitrary  alignment  and  political  geography  arranged  by  the 
Berlm  Congress. 

OUTLETS  TO  THE  WORLD'S  MARKET. 
The  commercial  side,  however,  was  a  big  factor,  for  Ger- 
many sought  world  markets  for  its  products.  In  the  near  East 
are  the  grain  fields  of  Mesopotamia,  and  in  the  far  East  are 
the  vast  markets  of  India  and  China.  The  great  banking  and 
financial  interests  of  Europe  have  been  seeking  the  conquest  of 
Asia  for  nearly  half  a  century.  German  capital  built  raiboads 
through  Asia  ]\Iinor,  but  English  capital  controls  the  Suez 
Canal.  Russia  welded  the  Balkan  states  until  the  Slavonic 
wedge  from  the  Black  sea  to  the  Adiiatic  barred  Germany's 
way  to  the  Orient.  England  threatened  the  Kaiser's  expan- 
sion on  the  sea;  while  Russia,  on  one  side,  with  France  her 
strong  ally,  closed  the  Germans  in  on  opposite  sides.  So  Ger- 
many must  have  outlets  to  the  world  markets. 

The  religious  element  was  also  a  factor  in  the  affau'S  of 
Europe,  for  the  territory  has  been  divided  into  four  large  reli- 
gious groups  for  centuries.  Moslems  comited  several  miUions 
of  Turks,  Bosnians  and  Albanians  in  Europe,  the  Prot- 
estants among  the  Germans,  English,  Swiss  and  Hungarians 
number  about  100,000,000,  while  the  Roman  Catholics  in  all 
the  Latin  countries.  Southern  Germany,  Croatia,  Albania, 
Bohemia,  and  in  Russian  Austria  and  Russian  Poland  are 
about  180,000,000.  The  Greek  Catholics  in  Russia,  the  Balkan 
countries  and  a  few  provinces  in  the  Austrian  Empire  nmnber 
more  than  110,000,000. 

The  differences  in  religion  have  precipitated  many  Euro- 


96      THE  FLASH  THAT  SET  THE  WORLD  AFLAME. 

pean  struggles,  but  for  more  than  a  century  the  countries  have 
been  forced  to  assume  an  attitude  of  tolerance,  so  that  churches 
other  than  those  estabUshed  by  the  State  have  thrived.  But 
just  what  influence  reh-gions  may  have  had  in  the  various  inci- 
dents of  the  war  it  is  difficult  to  determine. 

The  outstanding  fact  is  that  but  for  the  arrogant,  mili- 
taristic pohcy  of  Imperial  Germany,  the  differences  between 
nations  might  have  been  settled,  and  almost  indescribable 
horrors  of  the  war  would  never  have  been  experienced. 


CHAPTER  V. 

WHY  AMERICA  ENTEEED  THE  WAR. 

The  Teon  Hand  of  Peussianism — ^The  Abbogant  Hohenzollern   ATrrrtTDiJ— 
Seceetary  Lane  TeLiLS  Why  We  Fight — ^Broken  Pledges — ^Laws  Violated 

— PBUBSIANISM    THE   OhILD   OF   BABBAErTY — GeBMANY'S    PlANS    FOB   A    WORLD 

Empire. 

NOT  merely  to  prevent  Germany  from  opening  avenues  of 
conmieree  to  the  seas  nor  to  throttle  the  ambitions  of 
the  Kaiser  was  America  drawn  into  the  vortex  of  war 
with  France,  England,  Russia,  Belgium,  Italy  and  other 
nations ;  but  that  the  iron  hand  of  Prussianism,  as  exemplified 
in  the  conduct  of  the  German  Government,  might  be  lifted 
from  the  shoulders  of  men,  and  the  world  given  that  measure 
of  peace  and  security  which  modem  civilization  demands. 

Germany  by  her  ruthless  submarine  warfare  brought  deso- 
lation to  many  Ajnerican  homes.  She  sank  without  a  pang  of 
conscience  the  great  transatlantic  steamship  Lusitania,  and, 
while  pretending  friendship  for  the  United  States  and  plead- 
ing no  intent  to  disregard  American  rights,  broke  her  own 
pledges  and  repeated  her  overt  acts,  ignoring  international  law 
and  the  rights  of  all  neutrals  at  sea. 

She  began  her  outlawry  by  the  invasion  of  Belgium, 
which  was  followed  by  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  German 
forces  which  clearly  marked  them  descendants  of  the  "wolf 
tribes"  of  feudal  days,  fighting  with  the  motto  before  them  of, 
"To  the  victor  belong  the  spoils." 

But  all  of  Germany's  diabolical  acts  involving  the  peace 
and  security  of  America  and  American  citizens  might  have 
been  the  subject  of  international  adjudication  but  for  the  arro- 
gance of  the  ruling  forces  of  the  Teutons.  In  a  broad  sense, 
Prussianism  is  credited  with  responsibility  for  the  devastating 
mar  and  for  the  policy  which  drew  America  into  the  conflict. 

The  country,  led  by  President  Woodrow  Wilson,  who 

97 


98  WHY  AMEEICA  ENTERED  THE  WAR. 

temporized  to  an  extent  that  for  a  time  made  him  the  subject 
of  bitter  criticism,  f omid  that  war  was  being  forced  upon  it  by 
an  autocratic  and  ambitious  German  Government — ^tbat  of  the 
HohenzoUern  dynasty — which  possessed  an  insane  ambition  to 
dominate  the  earth,  leaving  to  America  no  alternative  but  to 
borrow  the  piratical  terrorism  of  Imperialistic  Germany,  with 
temporary  abandonment  of  its  own  constitutional  free  govern- 
ment, and  join  the  Allies  to  defend  it. 

In  the  sense  which  Prussianism  or  miUtarism  is  here  used 
it  denotes  a  mental  attitude  or  view.  It  is  a  condition  of  mind 
which  is  partisan,  exaggerated  and  egotistical,  and  is  developed 
by  environment  and  training.  Just  as  the  professional  spirit 
in  any  other  occupation  leads  to  an  exhibition  of  exaggerated 
importance,  the  despotic  doctrine  of  militarism  assumes  supe- 
riority over  rational  motives  and  deliberations.  Everything 
must  be  sacrificed  to  perpetuate  and  maintain  the  honor  and 
prestige  of  the  military. 

WHAT  MILITARISM  IS. 

What  that  militarism  is  and  what  it  has  done  to  America, 
and  to  the  whole  world,  is  best  summed  up  in  the  words  of 
Secretary  Lane,  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  at  Wash- 
ington, who  in  an  address  before  the  Home  Club  of  the  De- 
partment on  June  4,  1917,  just  when  America  was  beginning 
to  send  forces  to  Europe,  said : 

"America  is  at  war  in  self-defense  and  because  she  could 
not  keep  out ;  she  is  at  war  to  save  herself  with  the  rest  of  the 
world  from  the  nation  that  has  linked  itself  with  the  Turk  and 
adopted  the  methods  of  Mahomet,  setting  itself  to  make  the 
world  bow  before  pohcies  backed  by  the  organized  and  scien- 
tific military  system. 

"Why  are  we  fighting  Germany?  The  brief  answer  is 
that  ours  is  a  war  of  self-defense.  We  did  not  wish  to  fight 
Germany,  She  made  the  attack  upon  us;  not  on  our  shores, 
but  on  our  ships,  our  lives,  our  rights,  our  future.    For  two 


WHY  AMEEICA  ENTEKED  THE  WAR.  99 

years  and  more  we  held  to  a  neutrality  that  made  us  apologists 
for  things  which  outraged  man's  common  sense  of  fair  play 
and  humanity. 

"At  each  new  offense — ^the  invasion  of  Belgium,  the  kill- 
ing of  civilian  Belgians,  the  attacks  on  Scarborough  and  other 
defenseless  towns,  the  laying  of  mines  in  neutral  waters,  the 
fencing  off  of  the  seas — and  on  and  on  through  the  months, 
we  said: 

"  'This  is  war — archaic,  uncivilized  war,  but  war.  All 
rules  have  been  thrown  away;  all  nobility;  man  has  come  down 
to  the  primitive  brute.  And  while  we  cannot  justify,  we  can- 
not intervene.    It  is  not  our  war.' 

IN  WAR  TO  DEFEND  RIGHTS. 

"Then  why  are  we  in?  Because  we  could  not  keep  out. 
The  invasion  of  Belgium,  which  opened  the  war,  led  to  the 
invasion  of  the  United  States  by  slow,  steady,  logical  steps. 
Our  sympathies  evolved  into  a  conviction  of  self-interest.  Our 
love  of  fair  play  ripened  into  alarm  at  our  own  peril. 

"We  talked  in  the  language  and  in  the  spirit  of  good  faith 
and  sincerity,  as  honest  men  should  talk,  until  we  discovered 
that  our  talk  was  construed  as  cowardice.  And  Mexico  was 
called  upon  to  cow  us. 

"We  talked  as  men  would  talk  who  cared  alone  for  peace 
and  the  advancement  of  their  own  material  interests,  until  we 
discovered  that  we  were  thought  to  be  a  nation  of  mere  money- 
makers, devoid  of  all  character — until,  indeed,  we  were  told 
that  we  could  not  walk  the  highways  of  the  world  without  per- 
mission of  a  Prussian  soldier,  that  our  ships  might  not  sail 
without  wearing  a  striped  imiform  of  humiliation  upon  a  nar- 
row path  of  national  subservience. 

"We  talked  as  men  talk  who  hope  for  honest  agreement, 
not  for  war,  until  we  found  that  the  treaty  torn  to  pieces  at 
Liege  was  but  the  symbol  of  a  poHcy  that  made  agreements 
worthless  against  a  purpose  that  knew  no  word  but  success. 


100  WHY  AMERICA  ENTERED  THE  WAR. 

"And  so  we  came  into  this  war  for  ourselves.  It  is  a  war 
to  save  America,  to  preserve  self-respect,  to  justify  our  right 
to  live  as  we  have  lived,  not  as  some  one  else  wishes  us  to  live. 
In  the  name  of  freedom  we  challenge  with  ships  and  men, 
money  and  an  imdaunted  spirit,  that  word  Verboten'  which 
Germany  has  written  upon  the  sea  and  upon  the  land. 

**For  America  is  not  the  name  of  so  much  territory.  It  is 
a  living  spirit,  born  in  travail,  grown  in  the  rough  school  of 
bitter  experiences,  a  living  spirit  which  has  purpose  and  pride 
and  conscience,  knows  why  it  wishes  to  live  and  to  what  end, 
knows  how  it  comes  to  be  respected  of  the  world,  and  hopes  to 
retain  that  respect  by  living  on  with  the  light  of  Lincoln's  love 
of  man  as  its  old  and  new  testaments. 

AMERICA  MUST  LIVE. 

"It  is  more  precious  that  this  America  should  live  than 
that  we  Americans  should  live.  And  this  America  as  we  now 
see  has  been  challenged  from  the  &st  of  this  war  by  the  strong 
arm  of  a  power  that  has  no  sympathy  with  our  purpose,  and 
will  not  hesitate  to  destroy  us  if  the  law  that  we  respect,  the 
rights  that  are  to  us  sacred,  or  the  spirit  that  we  have,  stand 
across  her  set  will  to  make  this  world  bow  before  her  policies, 
backed  by  her  organized  and  scientific  military  system.  The 
world  of  Christ— a  neglected  but  not  a  rejected  Christ— has 
come  again  face  to  face  with  the  world  of  Mahomet,  who  willed 
to  win  by  force. 

"With  this  background  of  history  and  in  this  sense,  then, 
we  fight  Germany: 

"Because  of  Belgium— invaded,  outraged,  enslaved,  im- 
poverished Belgium.  We  cannot  forget  Liege,  Louvain  and 
Cardinal  Mercier.  Translated  into  terms  of  American  history 
these  names  stand  for  Bunker  Hill,  Lexington  and  Patrick 

Henry. 

"Because  of  France— invaded,  desecrated  France,  a  mil- 
lion of  whose  heroic  sons  have  died  to  save  the  land  of  Lafay- 


WHY  AMEEICA  ENTEEEB  THE  WAR.  101 

ette.  Glorious,  golden  France,  the  preserver  of  the  arts,  the 
land  of  noble  spirit.  The  first  land  to  foUoT^  our  lead  into 
republican  liberty. 

"Because  of  England— from  whom  came  the  laws,  tradi- 
tions, standards  of  life  and  inherent  love  of  liberty  which  we 
call  Anglo-Saxon  civilization.  We  defeated  her  once  upon  the 
land  and  once  upon  sea.  But  Austraha,  New  Zealand,  Africa 
and  Canada  are  free  because  of  what  we  did.  And  they  are 
with  us  in  the  fight  for  the  freedom  of  the  seas. 

"Because  of  Russian—new  Russia.  She  must  not  be  over- 
whelmed now.  Not  now,  surely,  when  she  is  just  born  into 
freedom.  Her  peasants  must  have  their  chance;  they  must  go 
to  school  to  Washington,  to  Jefferson  and  to  Lincoln,  until 
they  know  their  way  about  in  this  new,  strange  world,  of  gov- 
ernment by  the  popular  will;  and 

"Because  of  other  peoples,  with  their  rising  hope  that  the 
world  may  be  freed  from  government  by  the  soldier. 
GERMANY'S  CRIMES  AGAINST  US. 
*' We  are  fighting  Germany  because  she  sought  to  terrorize 
us  and  then  to  fool  us.    We  could  not  believe  that  Germany 
would  do  what  she  said  she  would  do  upon  the  seas. 

"We  still  hear  the  piteous  cries  of  children  coming  up  out 
of  the  sea  where  the  Lusitania  went  down.  And  Germany  has 
never  asked  forgiveness  of  the  world. 

"We  saw  the  Sussex  sunk,  crowded  with  the  sons  and 
daughters  of  neutral  nations. 

"We  saw  ship  after  ship  sent  to  the  bottom— ships  of 
mercy  bound  out  of  America  for  the  Belgian  starving;  ships 
carrying  the  Red  Cross  and  laden  with  the  wounded  of  all 
nations;  ships  carrying  food  and  clothing  to  friendly,  harmless, 
terrorized  peoples;  ships  flying  the  Stars  and  Stripes— sent  to 
the  bottom  hundreds  of  miles  from  shore,  manned  by  Ameri- 
can seamen,  murdered  against  all  law,  without  warning. 

"We  believed  Germany*s  promise  that  she  would  respect 


102  WHY  AMERICA  ENTERED  THE  WAR. 

the  neutral  flag  and  the  rights  of  neutrals,  and  we  held  our 
anger  and  outrage  in  check.  But  now  we  see  that  she  was  hold- 
ing us  off  with  fair  promises  until  she  could  build  her  huge  fleet 
of  submarines.  For  when  spring  came  she  blew  her  promise 
into  the  air,  just  as  at  the  beginning  she  had  torn  up  that 
'scrap  of  paper/  Then  we  saw  clearly  that  there  was  but  one 
law  for  Germany,  her  will  to  rule. 

"We  are  fighting  Germany  because  she  violated  our  con- 
fidence. Paid  German  spies  filled  our  cities.  Officials  of  her 
Government,  received  as  the  guests  of  this  nation,  lived  with 
us  to  bribe  and  terrorize,  defying  our  law  and  the  law  of 
nations. 

"We  are  fighting  Germany  because  while  we  were  yet  her 
friends — ^the  only  great  power  that  still  held  hands  off — she 
sent  the  Zimmermann  note  calling  to  her  aid  Mexico,  our 
southern  neighbor,  and  hoping  to  lure  Japan,  our  western 
neighbor,  into  war  against  this  nation  of  peace. 

GOVERNMENT  THAT  HAS  NO  CONSCIENCE. 
"The  nation  that  would  do  these  things  proclaims  the  gos- 
pel that  government  has  no  conscience.  And  this  doctrine  can- 
not hve,  or  else  democracy  must  die!  For  the  nations  of  the 
world  must  keep  faith.  There  can  be  no  living  for  us  in  a  world 
where  the  State  has  no  conscience,  no  reverence  for  the  things 
of  the  spirit,  no  respect  for  international  law,  no  mercy  for 
those  who  fall  before  its  force.  What  an  imordered  world! 
Anarchy !    The  anarchy  of  the  rival  wolf  packs ! 

"We  are  fighting  Germany  because  in  this  war  feudalism 
is  making  its  last  stand  against  oncoming  democracy.  We  see 
it  now.  This  is  a  war  against  an  old  spirit,  an  ancient,  out- 
worn spirit.  It  is  a  war  against  feudalism — ^the  right  of  the 
castle  on  the  hill  to  rule  the  village  below.  It  is  a  war  of  democ- 
racy—the right  of  all  to  be  their  own  masters.  Let  Germany 
be  feudal  if  she  will!  But  she  must  not  spread  her  system  over 
a  world  that  has  outgrown  it.    Feudalism  plus  science,  thir- 


WHY  AMERICA  ENTERED  THE  WAR.  ^03 

teenth  century  plus  twentieth;  this  is  the  religion  of  the  mis- 
taken Germany  that  has  linked  itself  with  the  Turk;  that  has, 
too,  adopted  the  method  of  Mahomet:  'The  State  has  no  con- 
science,' *the  State  can  do  no  wrong.'  With  the  spirit  of  the 
fanatic,  she  beheves  this  gospel  and  that  it  is  her  duty  to  spread 
it  by  force. 

"With  poison  gas  that  makes  living  a  hell,  with  submarines 
that  sneak  through  the  seas  to  slyly  murder  non-combatants, 
with  dirigibles  that  bombard  men  and  women  while  they  sleep, 
with  a  perfected  system  of  terrorization  that  the  modern  world 
first  heard  of  when  German  troops  entered  China,  German 
feudalism  is  making  war  upon  mankind. 

LIVE  IN  HAUNTED  TERROR. 

"Let  this  old  spirit  of  evil  have  its  way  and  no  man  will 
live  in  America  without  paying  toll  to  it,  in  manhood  and  in 
money.  This  spirit  might  demand  Canada  from  a  defeated, 
navyless  England,  and  then  our  dream  of  peace  on  the  north 
would  be  at  an  end.  We  would  live,  as  France  has  lived  for 
forty  years,  in  haunting  terror. 

"lAmerica  speaks  for  the  world  in  fighting  Germany. 
Mark  on  a  map  those  countries  which  are  Germany's  allies, 
and  you  will  mark  but  four,  running  from  the  Baltic  through 
Austria  and  Bulgaria  to  Turkey.  All  the  other  nations,  the 
whole  glove  around,  are  in  arms  against  her  or  are  unable  to 
move.    There  is  deep  meaning  in  this. 

"We  fight  with  the  world  for  an  honest  world,  in  which 
nations  keep  their  word;  for  a  world  in  which  nations  do  not 
live  by  swagger  or  by  threat;  for  a  world  in  which  men  think 
of  the  ways  in  which  they  can  conquer  the  common  cruelties  of 
nature  instead  of  inventing  more  horrible  cruelties  to  inflict 
upon  the  spu*it  and  body  of  man;  for  a  world  in  which  the  am- 
bition  or  the  philosophy  of  a  few  shall  not  make  miserable  all 
mankind;  for  a  world  in  which  the  man  is  held  more  precious 
than  the  machine,  the  system  or  the  State.'* 


104  WHY  AMERICA  ENTERED  THE  WAR. 

In  his  denunciations  of  the  Imperial  German  Govern- 
ment President  Wilson  and  his  advisers  have  indicted  the 
House  of  HohenzoUern,  of  which  Emperor  Wilhehn  is  the 
head,  and  which  has  developed  the  imbending  mihtary  spirit 
which  has  resulted  in  Germany  being  coimted  an  outcast  among 
the  nations  of  the  world. 

America,  it  must  be  noted,  has  no  antipathy  for  the  Ger- 
mans as  a  race,  but  modern  civilization  opposes  that  form  of 
Government  which  has  permitted  the  cruel  characteristics  of 
the  "wolf  tribes"  of  feudal  times  to  be  carried  down  through 
the  generations,  and  capitalized  by  the  Imperial  powers  to 
bring  terror  to  the  hearts  of  aU  who  do  not  bow  to  the  iron  hand 
of  the  Kaiser  and  his  ilK. 

GERMANY  A  WARLIKE  RACE. 

The  thing  from  which  this  Prussianism — ^this  militarism — 
grew  is  easily  traceable  down  the  German  ages.  The  very 
first  appearance  of  the  Germans  in  history  is  as  a  warlike 
race.  The  earliest  German  literature  is  composed  of  folk  tales 
about  war  heroes — ^their  ideals  and  manly  virtues.  And  this 
ideal  in  one  form  or  another,  under  varying  circumstances  and 
conditions,  persisted  throughout  the  centuries. 

It  is  not  merely  that  military  service  has  been  compulsory 
in  Germany,  but  that  almost  everything  else  has  been  subju- 
gated to  the  development  of  the  army.  While  Germany  has 
given  to  the  world  a  generous  quota  of  scientists,  industrial 
geniuses,  musicians  and  poets,  the  whole  race  is  imbued  with 
the  warlike  spirit  and  its  influence  is  manifest  in  every  phase 
of  national  life.  Practically  all  that  is  best  in  the  nation  in  the 
way  of  efficiency  has  been  inspired  or  may  be  traced  to  the 
mihtary  discipline  to  which  the  people  have  been  subjected  for 
years.  They  have  been  created  human  machines,  trained  to 
obey  orders  and  to  perform  the  services  to  which  they  are  as- 
signed without  protest  and  without  question. 

The  history  of  Germany  began  with  Henry,  the  Fowler, 


WHY  AMEEICA  ENTERED  THE  WAR.  lo5 

about  A.  D.  929,  who  was  essentially  the  first  sovereign.  He 
developed  the  system  of  margraves  or  wardens  to  guard  the 
frontiers  of  the  kingdom,  fortified  his  towns  and  required 
every  ninth  man  to  take  up  arms  for  his  country.  Robbers 
were  forced  to  become  soldiers  or  be  hanged,  and  as  lawlessness 
was  rampant  there  was  no  dearth  of  material  to  fill  up  the 
ranks  of  the  army. 

The  margraves,  or  military  leaders  under  them,  grew  in 
importance  and  influence  until  the  offices  tended  to  become 
hereditary.  Gradually  the  country  was  divided  into  princi- 
pahties,  each  of  which  maintained  a  force  of  arms.  This  lim- 
ited form  of  military  rule  maintained  for  several  centuries  of 
troublesome  times,  or  until  about  1412,  when  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund  appointed  Burgrave  Frederick,  of  Nuremberg,  "Stratt- 
halter,"  or  vice-regent. 

BIRTH  OF  THE  MILITARY  SPIRIT. 

This  appointment  marked  the  establishment  of  the  Hohen- 
zoUerns  in  Brandenbm-g,  and,  in  fine,  fixes  the  birth  of  the 
military  spirit  in  Germany. 

Other  princes  of  the  German  Reich  maintained  armies, 
but  the  Hohenzollems  were  destined  to  imprint  upon  the  na- 
tion the  military  ideal.  In  the  beginning  history  says  that 
Burgrave  Frederick  tried  all  the  arts  of  peace,  but  it  was  only 
with  the  army  of  Franks  and  some  artillery  that  he  was  able 
to  batter  down  the  castles  of  the  robber  lords  and  bring  order 
into  Brandenburg. 

Thomas  Carlyle  gives  a  list  of  twelve  electors  who  strove 
in  turn  to  consolidate  the  power  of  Prussia,  so  that  when  Fed- 
erick  the  Great  became  King  of  Prussia  he  found  much  of  the 
work  done.  Among  the  rulers  of  these  strenuous  days  to  whom 
the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  may  point  as  having  handed  down  to  him 
the  warlike  spirit  are  Kurfuerst  Joachim  I,  of  Brandenburg 
(1529) ,  who  introduced  Roman  law  and  estabhshed  a  supreme 
court  for  all  the  provinces  at  Berlin;  Kurfuerst  Joachim  11, 


106  WHY  AMEEICA  ENTEElED  THE  WAR. 

of  Brandenburg  {1542),  whom  history  describes  as  an  un- 
scrupulous despot,  fond  of  luxury  and  display,  and  who 
changed  his  religion  because  it  was  an  advantage  politically  for 
him  to  do  so;  Margrave  Georg  Frederick  von  Ansbach  (1564;), 
who  caused  the  eyes  of  sixty  peasants  to  be  bored  out  upon 
winning  the  Peasants'  war,  and  Kurfuerst  Frederick  William 
der  Grosse,  of  Brandenburg  (1652),  known  as  the  "Great 
Elector,"  a  fighter,  who  had  two  clearly  defined  aims:  to  build 
up  agi-iculture  and  maintain  a  big  army. 

For  years  the  HohenzoUerns  and  their  aids  were  fighting 
unfriendly  neighbors  and  quarrelsome  princes,  and  when  after 
the  lapse  of  time  the  Thirty  Years'  War  finally  turned  Ger- 
many into  a  field  of  blood,  the  Great  Elector  emerged  from 
the  strife  with  the  support  of  about  25,000  well  drilled  soldiers, 
and  freed  his  country  from  foreign  foes. 

HELD  EUROPE  AT  HIS  MERCY. 

The  estabhshment  of  the  power  of  the  Junkers— the  auto- 
crats of  Prussianism— is  credited  to  Frederick  the  Great,  who 
was  the  great  drillmaster  who  organized  the  Prussian  army  on 
lines  of  efficiency  and  economy.  It  is  related  that  Frederick, 
afterward  "The  Great,"  was  taken  from  his  women  teachers 
at  the  age  of  seven  years  and  subjected  to  rigid  military  dis- 
cipline. He  commanded  a  company  of  cadets,  composed  of 
the  sons  of  nobles  who  were  compelled  to  drill  for  him,  and  at 
the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  a  captain  in  the  Potsdam  Guards, 
and  when,  in  1740,  he  became  king,  he  took  the  army  and  held 
all  Em-ope  at  his  mercy.  His  successor,  Frederick  William 
II,  was  incapable,  and  the  French  revolution  found  Germany 
in  a  state  of  discord. 

When  Frederick  WiUiam  III  acceded  to  the  throne  in 
179T  he  started  to  reorganize  the  army.  Frederick  William  I 
had  divided  the  country  into  districts,  or  cantons,  and  here 
began  the  system  of  compulsory  military  training.  All  males 
born  were  enrolled  and  liable  to  service  when  of  age.    The  army 


WHY  AMERICA  ENTERED  THE  WAR.  107 

was  recruited  by  districts  and  every  district  had  its  regiment, 
though  later  exemptions  were  allowed.  Under  Frederick  Wil- 
liam III,  Schamhorst,  a  Hanoverian,  was  the  military  reor- 
ganizer,  and  he  began  the  work  with  the  slogan  "All  dwellers 
of  the  State  are  born  defenders  of  the  same." 

Instead  of  depending  for  its  development  on  king,  the 
army  was  directed  by  genius  of  best  men  developed  by  the 
system.  After  the  formation  of  the  German  Empke  in  1871, 
which  placed  the  king  of  Prussia  at  its  head,  the  Constitution 
of  the  German  Empire  made  every  German  a  member  of  the 
active  army  for  seven  years.  Service  ^vith  colors  three  years 
and  with  the  reserve  four.  In  1875  there  were  eighteen  army 
corps,  of  which  twelve  were  Prussian.  The  strength  by  law 
in  1874  was  400,000. 

PEACE   STRENGTH   INCREASED. 

In  1881  the  established  peace  strength  was  increased  by 
thirty-four  battalions  of  infantry,  forty  batteries  of  field  artil- 
lery and  other  forces,  and  in  1886  Bismarck,  recognizing  the 
power  of  Prussianism  and  its  mihtary  influence,  was  com- 
pelled to  dissolve  the  Reichstag,  but  after  the  election  in  188?] 
thirty-one  other  battahons  and  twenty-four  batteries  were 
added.  Two  complete  army  corps  were  added  in  1890,  and  in 
1893  the  color  service,  or  length  of  time  when  reservists  were 
subject  to  duty  under  colors  only,  was  decreased  by  two  years, 
bringing  the  peace  strength  up  to  more  than  half  a  million  and 
the  reservists  up  to  4,000,000.  Step  by  step  the  strength  of 
the  mihtary  force  was  increased  until  after  the  adoption  of 
the  law  of  1913,  when  provision  was  made  for  699  battalions  of 
infantry,  633  batteries  of  field  artillery;  44  battalions  of  engi- 
neers; 55  battalions  of  garrison  artillery;  31  battalions  of  com» 
mimications  and  26  battalions  of  train  troop&---a  grand  total 
of  870,000  actually  in  service  in  peace  strength. 

The  German  Empire  is  composed  of  twenty-six  states- 
Prussia,  Bavaria,  Wurttemberg,  Baden,  Saxony,  Hesse,  Meek- 


108  WHY  AMERICA  ENTERED  THE  WAR. 

lenburg-Schwerin,  Mecklenburg- Sterlitz,  Oldenburg,  Bruns- 
wick, Sax-Weimer-Eisnach,  Sax-Coburg-Gotha,  Saxe-Mein- 
ingen,  Saxe-Altenburg,  Waldeck,  Lippe,  Schaumburg-Lippe, 
Reuss  (elder  line),  Reuss  (younger  line),  Anhalt,  Schwarz- 
Rudolsadt,  Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen,  Hamburg,  Bremen, 
Lubeck  and  Reichsland — ^the  Alsace-Lorraine.  The  area  is 
less  than  that  of  the  State  of  Texas  while  the  population  ac- 
cording to  the  most  recent  statistics  is  about  65,000,000. 

Every  male  person  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty- 
five  is  liable  for  military  service.  Reservists  imder  the  rules 
in  force  when  the  war  started  were  subject  to  two  musters  an- 
nually and  two  periods  of  training  not  to  exceed  eight  weeks 
in  duration. 

EGOTISTICAL  AND  EXAGGERATED  UTTERANCES. 

That  the  present  Emperor  is  imbued  with  the  harsh  mili- 
tary spirit  of  his  ancestors  is  illustrated  by  his  many  egotistical 
and  exaggerated  utterances.  In  dedicating  the  monument  of 
Prince  Frederick  Charles  at  Frankfurt-on-the-Oder  in  1891, 
he  is  quoted  as  having  said : 

"We  would  rather  sacrifice  our  eighteen  army  corps  and 
our  42,000,000  inhabitants  on  the  field  of  battle  than  surrender 
a  single  stone  of  what  my  father  and  Prince  Frederick  gained." 
The  thrills  which  such  expressions  arouse  are  born  of  an  in- 
veterate emotional  habit,  and  are  responsible  for  the  obliquity 
of  view  and  conduct  which  has  made  Germany  an  outcast 
among  civilized  nations. 

But  Germany  was  not  satisfied  with  what  she  had  obtained 
by  her  crusading.  Developments  of  the  war  prove  conclu- 
sively that  the  Kaiser  has  followed  out  the  blood  and  iron 
politico-economic  methods  of  Bismarck  for  the  development  of 
Prussian  power  and  that  while  at  times  Germany  has  been 
reported  to  be  maneuvering  for  peace,  her  peace  moves  have  in 
reality  been  war  moves,  and  that  a  truce  would  only  give  the 
Imperial  Government  time  in  which  to  further  Prussianize  and 


WHY  AMEKICA  ENTERED  THE  WAR.  109 

prepare  for  a  greater  world  war  the  territory  to  the  isoutheast 
which  she  has  conquered  under  the  guise  of  a  friendly  alliance. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  President  Wilson  declared  that 
"America  must  fight  until  the  world  is  made  safe  for  democ- 
racy." This  declaration  refers  immediately  to  the  plans  which 
it  has  developed  Germany  had  for  its  conquest.  Based  upon 
reports  received  by  agents  of  the  United  States,  of  England, 
of  France  and  other  countries,  Germany  aimed  to  form  a  con- 
solidation of  an  impregnable  military  and  economic  unit 
istretching  from  the  North  Sea  to  the  Mediterranean,  cutting 
Europe  permanently  in  half,  controlling  the  Dardanelles,  the 
Agean  and  the  Baltic,  and  eventually  forming  the  backbone 
of  a  Prussian  world  empire. 

LEAGUE  AT  WORK  SINCE  1911. 

In  her  southeastern  conquests,  it  is  apparent,  Germany 
followed  almost  in  toto  the  long  established  plan  of  the  Pan- 
German  League,  whose  propaganda  had  been  regarded  outside 
of  Germany  as  the  harmless  activity  of  extremists,  too  radical 
to  be  taken  seriously.  Coupled  with  this  plan,  as  an  instrument 
of  economic  consolidation,  the  German  officials  used  with  only 
slight  modification  the  system  of  customs  union  expansion 
which  aided  Prussia  in  former  years  to  extend  her  domination 
over  the  other  German  States  now  making  up  the  empire. 

As  early  as  1911  the  Pan-German  League  is  said  to  have 
circulated  a  definite  propaganda  of  conquest,  with  printed  ap- 
peals containing  maps  of  a  greater  Germany,  whose  sway  from 
Hamburg  to  Constantinople  and  then  southeastward  through 
Asiatic  Turkey  was  marked  out  by  boundaries  very  coincident 
with  the  military  lines  held  today,  under  German  officers,  by 
the  troops  of  Germany,  Austria-Hujigary,  Bulgaria  and  Tur- 
key. Adhesion  of  the  German  Government  itself  to  such  a 
plan  was  not  suspected  by  the  other  Powers,  although  the 
propagandists  were  permitted  to  continue  their  activities  un- 
hindered and  to  spread  their  appeals  in  a  country  of  strict  press 


110  WHY  AMERICA  ENTERED  THE  WAR. 

supervision.  How  closely  the  German  Government  did  ad- 
here to  the  plan  in  reality  has  been  demonstrated' clearly  by 
the  com'se  of  the  war. 

Following  the  footsteps  of  Bismarck,  who  used  the  Fran- 
co-Prussian war  alliance  to  bring  Baden,  Bavaria  and  Wurt- 
temburg  into  the  German  confederacy  and  then  into  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  Emperor  William  chose  war  as  the  means  of 
establishing  the  broad  pathway  to  the  southeast  which  was 
essential  for  realization  of  the  dream  of  a  great  Germany. 

VERGE  OF  DISSOLUTION. 

The  subjugation  of  Austria-Hungary,  which  would  have 
presented  a  diif  erent  task  under  ordinary  conditions,  became  in 
these  circumstances  comparatively  very  simple.  A  polyglot 
combination  of  States,  having  little  in  common  and  apparently 
held  together  only  by  the  decaying  genius  of  the  aged  Em- 
peror Franz  Joseph,  the  dual  monarchy  was  regarded  every- 
where as  on  the  verge  of  dissolution.  Her  helplessness  before 
Russia's  army  became  apparent  early  in  the  war,  and  the  eager- 
ness with  which  Germany  seized  the  opportunity  thus  pre- 
sented is  pointed  to  as  emphasizing  the  far-sightedness  of 
the  German  plans. 

Austria-Hungary's  submission  is  declared  to  be  complete, 
both  in  a  military  and  economic  sense.  The  German  officers 
commanding  her  armies,  abetted  by  industrial  agents,  scattered 
throughout  the  country  by  Germany,  hold  the  Austrian  and 
Hungarian  population  in  a  union  which  neither  the  hardships 
of  war,  the  death  of  the  Emperor  nor  the  inspiration  of  the  out- 
side influences,  such  as  the  Russian  revolution,  can  break. 

Bulgaria's  declaration  of  war  on  the  side  of  Germany  was 
actuated  by  a  German  diplomatic  coup,  which  in  itself  is  re- 
garded now  as  fm-ther  evidence  that  a  clear  road  through  to 
the  Dardanelles  was  considered  in  Berlin  as  a  primary  and  im- 
perative purpose  of  the  war. 

In  the  case  of  Tui'key,  German  domination  is  even  more 


WHY  AMERICA  ENTERED  THE  WAR.  Ill 

complete  than  in  Austria-Hungary  and  Bulgaria.  Not  only 
have  German  officers  led  in  defending  Tuikish  territory  and 
in  eradicating  inharmonious  elements,  such  as  the  Armenians 
and  Syrians,  but  German  industrial  organizations  have  taken  a 
firm  grip  on  Turkish  industry  and  a  large  delegation  of  Ger- 
man professors  have  been  spreading  German  kultur  among  the 
population. 

The  developments  threw  a  new  light  on  many  events  be- 
fore the  war.  Among  them  the  long-unexplained  declaration 
of  Emperor  William  at  Damascus  in  1898  that  ail  Mohamme- 
dans might  confidently  regard  the  German  Emperor  as  ''their 
friend  forever."  There  also  is  a  complete  understanding  now 
of  Germany's  eagerness  to  obtain,  in  1899,  a  concession  for  the 
Bagdad  raiboad,  an  artery  of  communication  now  indispens- 
able to  the  German  operations. 

These  are  the  tilings  and  conditions  to  which  the  Alhes- 
referred  when  in  replying  to  one  of  President  Wilson's  peace 
notes  they  declared  that  war  must  accomplish  the  "liberation  of 
Itahans,  of  Slavs,  of  Rumanians  and  of  Tzecho-Slovacs  from 
foreign  domination;  the  enfranchisement  of  populations  sub- 
ject to  the  bloody  tyranny  of  the  Turk;  the  expulsion  from 
Europe  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  the  restoration  of  Servia, 
Montenegro  and  Rimiania." 

America  entered  the  war  to.  fight  for  Democracy.  On  the 
surface  the  United  States  pledged  itself  to  protect  its  ships  and 
make  secin^e  the  lives  of  its  citizens  on  the  highways  of  the 
world,  but  the  principles  for  which  the  manhood  of  the  coun- 
try  were  called  to  fight  have  been  summarized  as  follows: 

That  the  nations  of  the  world  shall  co-operate  and  not 
compete.  The  paradox  of  history  is  that  every  struggle  leads 
to  firmer  unity.  Wars  cemented  France,  unified  the  British 
Empire,  consohdated  the  American  Union. 

That  national  armaments  be  limited  to  purposes  of  inter- 
nal pohce,  no  nation  be  allowed  to  have  a  force  sufficient  to  be 


112  WHY  AMERICA  ENTERED  THE  WAR. 

a  menace  to  general  peace,  and  a  League  of  Peace  be  formed 
which  shall  have  at  its  hand  sufBcient  armed  power  to  compel 
order  among  the  States. 

That  nations  be  governed  by  the  people  that  compose 
them,  and  for  the  benefit  of  those  people,  and  not  of  a  ruling 
class. 

That  every  nation  be  governed  with  an  eye  to  the  welfare 
of  the  whole  world  as  well  as  to  its  own  prosperity  or  glory, 
and  patriotism  properly  subjected  to  humanity. 

That  the  power  of  government  be  dissociated  from  ad- 
vancing the  profits  of  capital,  and  made  always  to  mean  the 
welfare  of  labor. 

That  security  of  life,  freedom  of  worship  and  opinion,  and 
liberty  of  movement  be  assured  to  all  men  everywhere. 

That  no  munitions  or  instruments  of  death  be  manufac- 
tured except  under  control  of  the  International  Council  of 
the  World. 

That  the  seas  be  free  to  all. 

That  tariffs  be  adjusted  with  a  view  to  the  general  welfare 
and  not  as  measures  of  national  rivalry. 

That  railways,  telegraph,  and  telephone  lines,  and  all 
other  common  and  necessary  means  of  intercommunication  be 
eventually  nationalized. 

That  every  human  being  in  a  country  be  conscripted  to 
devote  a  certain  part  of  his  or  her  life  to  national  service. 

That  both  labor  unions  and  combinations  of  capital  be 
under  strict  government  control,  so  that  no  irresponsible  group 
may  conspire  against  the  commonwealth. 

That  every  child  receive  training  to  equip  him  or  her  for 
self-support  and  intelligent  citizenship. 

That  woman  shall  enjoy  every  right  of  citizenship. 

That  the  civil  shall  always  have  precedence  over  the  mili- 
tary authority. 

And  that  the  right  of  free  speech,  of  a  free  press,  and  of 
assembly  shall  remain  inviolate. 


CHAPTEE  VI. 
THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD. 

GEBMANT'S    BABBAB.TT-THE    DEVASTATION     OF    BEI«IUM-HUMAK     ^IENDS-FM^ 
BEANB  AND  TOECH-EAPE  AND  PHXAOE-THE   SACKING   OE   LOUVAIN-WANTOW 

Destruction— Official  Peoof. 

THE  conduct  of  Germany  in  ignoring  international  treaties 
and  invading  Belgium  first  aroused  the  antagonism  of 

the  United  States  and  the  rest  of  the  civilized  world,  and 
furnished  the  primary  glimpse  of  how  Imperialism  made  light 
of  human  rights.  What  the  Kaiser  and  his  arrogant  followers 
did  is  fully  set  forth  in  the  report  which  a  special  envoy,  ap- 
pointed by  King  Albert  of  Belgum,  laid  before  President  Wil- 
son on  September  16,  1914. 

The  mission  consisted  of  Henry  Carton  de  Wiart,  Mm- 
ister  of  Justice;  Messrs.  de  Sadeleer,  Hymans  and  Vander- 
velde.  Ministers  of  State,  and  Count  Louis  de  Lichtervelde, 
serving  as  secretary  of  the  mission.  On  being  received  by 
President  Wilson,  Mr.  de  Wiart,  for  the  mission,  outlined  for 
the  world  and  for  America,  the  situation  in  part  as  follows: 

**His  Majesty,  the  King  of  the  Belgians,  has  charged  us 
with  a  special  mission  to  the  President  of  the  United  States. 
Let  me  say  how  much  we  feel  ourselves  honored  to  have  been 
called  upon  to  express  the  sentiments  of  our  King  and  of  our 
whole  nation  to  the  illustrious  statesman  whom  the  American 
people  have  called  to  the  highest  dignity  of  the  commonwealth. 

**Ever  since  her  independence  was  first  established,  Bel- 
gium has  been  declared  neutral  in  perpetuity.  This  neutrality, 
guaranteed  by  the  Powers,  has  recently  been  violated  by  one 
of  them.  Had  we  consented  to  abandon  our  neutrality  for  the 
benefit  of  one  of  the  belligerents,  we  would  have  betrayed  our 
obligations  toward  the  others.  And  it  was  the  sense  of  our 
international  obligations  as  well  as  that  of  our  dignity  and 
honor  that  has  driven  us  to  resistance. 

113 


114  THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD.  / 

"The  consequences  suffered  by  the  Belgian  nation  were 
not  coniined  purely  to  the  harm  occasioned  by  the  forced  march 
of  the  myadmg  army.  This  army  not  only  seized  a  great  por- 
tion ox  pm-  territoiy,  but  it  committed  incredible  acts  of  vio- 
lence,  the  nature  of  which  is  contrary  to  the  laws  of  nations. 
,  -Peaceful  inhabitants  were  massacred,  defenseless  women 
ana  cnildren  were  outraged;  open  and  midefended  towns  were 
iS^Zh^'T  ^^  ''"^^°""  Bionmnents  were  reduced  to 
gl^n  to  the1~  ''"^"  ^'  *'^  ^™^*^  «^  •^---  -- 

n,.tr^"  !PT™^^^Ji^«  appointed  a  Judicial  Commission  to 
make  an  omcial  investigation,  so  as  to  thoroughly  and  impar- 

tWof^'Tx'  *^f/^^\^«'i  t°  determine  the  responsibSity 
the  eof,  and  I  wiU  hare  the  honor,  Exellency,  to  hand  over  t^ 
you  the  proceedings  of  the  inquiry. 

THE  UNITED  STATES*  ATTITUDE. 
^     "^»  .^^^s   fr^gJitM  holocaust   which  is  sweeping  over 
Em-ope,  the  United  States  has  adopted  a  neutral  attitude. 

And  it  IS  for  this  reason  that  your  country,  standing 
apart  from  either  one  of  the  belligerents,  is  in  the  best  positioS 
to  judge,  without  bias  or  partiality,  the  conditions  under  wWcK 
the  war  is  bemg  waged. 

c!f„-  "■^*i'f  *,?^.  "^T?*'  ^^^^  ^*  ""^^  m€^^\:v,^  of  the  United 
Stares^hat  all  cmhzed  nations  have  formulated  and  adopted 
at  the  Hague  a  law  regulating  the  laws  and  usages  of  war. 

.  We  refuse  to  believe  that  war  has  abolished  the  family 
ot  cmhzed  powers,  or  the  regulation  to  which  they  have  freely 
consented.  "^ 

"The  American  people  has  always  displayed  its  respect 
tor  justice,  its  search  for  progiess  and  an  instinctive  attach- 
ment for  the  laws  of  humanity.  Therefore,  it  has  won  a  moral 
influence  which  is  recognized  by  the  entire  world,  lit  is  for  this 
reason  that  Belgium,  bound  as  she  is  to  you  by  ties  of  commerce 
and  mcreasing  friendship,  turns  to  the  American  people  at  this 


THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD.     US 

time  to  let  you  know  the  real  truth  of  the  present  situation. 
Resolved  to  continue  unflinching  defence  of  its  sovereignty  and 
independence,  it  deems  it  a  duty  to  bring  to  the  attencion  of 
the  civilized  world  the  innumerable  grave  breaches  of  rights  of 
mankind,  of  which  she  bas  been  a  victim. 

"At  the  very  moment  we  were  leaving  Belgium,  the  Amg 
recalled  to  us  his  trip  to  the  United  States  and  the  vivid  and 
strong  impression  your  powerful  and  virile  civilization  left 
upon  his  mind.  Our  faith  in  your  fairness,  our  confidence  m 
your  justice,  in  your  spirit  of  generosity  ana  sympathy,  aU 
these  have  dictated  our  present  mission." 

THE  INVESTIGATING  COMMITTEE. 
In  the  report  handed  to  President  Wilson,  the  preface  sets 
forth  that  the  committee  appointed  to  investigate  the  conduc. 
of  the  German  invaders,  and  all  of  the  surroundmg  circum- 
stances, consisted  of  Messrs.  Cattier,  professor  at  the  Brussels 
University;  Nys,  counselor  of  the  Brussels  Court  of  Appeals; 
Verhaegen,  counselor  of  the  Brussels   Court   of  Appeals; 
Wodon,  professor  at  the  Brussels  University;  Secretary,  Mr. 
GiUard,  Director  of  the  Department  of  Justice.    Afterwards, 
when  the  invasion  made  it  necessary  to  transfer  the  seat  ot  the 
government  from  Brussels  to  Antwerp,  a  sub-coinmittee  was 
appointed  there,  'consisting  of  Mr.  Cooreman,  Mmist^-  of 
State;  Members,  Count  Goblet  d'AvieUa,  Mm.ister  of  State, 
Vice  President  of  the  Senate;  Messrs.  Kyckmans,  Senator; 
Strauss,  Alderman  of  the  City  of  Antwerp ;  Van  Cutsem,  Hon- 
orary President  of  the  Law  Court  of  Antwerp.    Secretaries, 
Chevalier  Ernst  de  Bunswyck,  Chief  Secretary  of  the  Belgian 
Minister  of  Justice;  Mr.  Orts,  Counselor  of  the  Legation.    _ 

In  brief  the  report  submits  first,  that  in  violation  ot  the 
perpetual  treaty  of  June  26, 1831,  Germany  notified  Belgium 
that  France  was  about  to  march  upon  Germany,  and  that  Ger- 
many proposed  to  frustrate  such  a  move  by  sending  its  soldiers 
through  Belgium;  that  the  German  government  had  no  mten- 


116  THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAT), 

tion  of  making  wax  against  Belgium,  and  that  if  Belgimn  made 
no  opposition  it  would  evacuate  Belgium  after  hostiHties 
ceased,  and  during  the  period  the  German  forces  were  in  the 
country,  would  buy  everything  needed  for  its  army.  Belgium 
replied  that  it  had  assurance  from  France  that  France  had  no 
intention  of  invading  Belgium,  and  that  if  France  attempted 
to  pass  through  Belgium  would  oppose  such  an  act  with  force. 
It  informed  the  German  Imperial  Government  that  it  would 
similarly  oppose  any  move  on  the  part  of  Germany  to  pass 
through. 

Nevertheless  Germany  proceeded  at  once  tHrougli  Bel- 
^um.  Quoting  articles  from  the  Hague  treaty,  the  commis- 
sion's report  reads : 

THE  DAYS  OF  BABARISM. 

*'In  the  days  of  barbarism,  the  population  of  a  territory 
occupied  hy  the  enemy  was  deprived  of  all  judicial  capacity. 
[At  that  time,"  as  Ghering  writes  ironically,  "  *the  enemy  was 
absolutely  deprived  of  rights;  everything  he  owned  belonged 
to  the  gallant  warrior  who  had  wrenched  it  away  from  him. 
One  had  merely  to  lose  it.' 

*'In  our  days  the  rules  of  warfare  clearly  establish  the  dif- 
ference between  the  property  of  the  government  of  the  terri- 
tory occupied  and  the  property  of  individuals.  While  the  pres- 
ent doctrine  allows  the  conqueror  to  seize,  in  a  general  way, 
everything  in  the  way  of  movable  property  belonging  to  the 
State,  it  obliges  him,  on  the  other  hand,  to  respect  the  property 
of  individuals,  corporations  and  public  provincial  administra- 
tions. 

*'The  Hague  ^Convention,  signed  October  18, 1897,  by  all 
the  civilized  States,  among  others  by  Germany,  contains  the 
following  stipulations  regarding  laws  and  customs  of  warfare 
on  land: 

''  'Art.  46.  The  honor  and  right  of  the  family,  the  life  of 
the  individual  and  private  property,  as  well  as  religious  ec«i- 


THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD.  117 

victions  and  the  exercise  of  worship,  must  be  respected.    Pri- 
vate property  cannot  be  confiscated. 

"  'Art.  47.  Pillaging  is  formally  prohibited. 
"  'Art.  53.  When  occupying  territory,  the  army  can  only 
seize  cash  as  weU  as  funds  and  securities  belonging  entirely  to 
the  State;  also  depots  of  arms,  ways  and  means  of  transporta- 
tion, warehouses  and  provisions,  and  in  a  general  way  all  mov- 
able property  belonging  to  the  State  and  liable  to  be  used  for 
warlike  operations. 

"  'Art.  56.  Property  of  municipalities,  property  of  estab- 
lishments consecrated  to  worship,  to  charity  and  instruction; 
to  art  and  science,  even  though  belonging  to  the  State,  will  be 
treated  as  private  property.' 

"In  defiance  of  these  conventional  rules,  voluntarily  and 
solemnly  accepted  by  Germany,  she  has  committed,  from  the 
beginning  of  her  invasion  of  Belgian  soil,  numerous  attacks 
upon  private  property."  ,  . 

GERMAN  CUPIDITY. 
At  Hasselt,  the  report  shows  that  on  August  12,  1914, 
the  Germans  confiscated  the  funds  of  the  branch  of  the  Na- 
tional Bank,  which  amounted  to  2,075,000  francs.  At  Liege, 
on  entering  the  city,  they  forcibly  seized  the  funds  of  a  branch 
of  the  same  bank,  amounting  to  4,000,000  francs.  Moreover, 
upon  finding  at  that  branch  bundles  of  bank  notes  of  5-franc 
denomination,  representing  an  amount  of  400,000  francs,  and 
which  were  not  yet  signed,  they  forced  a  printer  to  sign  those 
bank  notes  by  means  of  a  rubber  stamp,  which  they  had  also 
seized,  and  afterwards  put  the  notes  in  circulation.  The  bank, 
it  is  explamed,  was  a  shareholders'  corporation,  the  capital 
having  been  obtained  by  subscription  from  private  parties  and 
was  in  no  wise  an  institution  of  the  State. 

The  enormity  of  this  offence  is  made  apparent  by  the  fact 
that  in  the  war  of  1870,  when  the  Prussians  entered  Ehiems  in 
the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and  they  wanted  to  confiscate  the 


118  THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  UAB. 

funds  of  the  branch  of  the  National  Bank  of  France,  Crown 
Prince  Frederick  ordered  that  funds  which  were  found  at  the 
bank  could  not  be  seized  so  long  as  they  were  not  used  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  French  army,  it  having  been  contended  by 
directors  of  the  institution  that  the  bank  was  not  a  State,  but  a 
private  bank.  But  more  than  this  Germany  levied  supplies 
from  every  Belgian  city  and  tried  to  levy  upon  the  city  of 
Brussels  the  sum  of  50,000,000  francs  and  the  province  of  Bra- 
bant 450,000,000  francs. 

TREATY  OBLIGATIONS. 

Categorically,  the  violation  and  disregard  of  every  phase 
of  the  Hague  treaty  is  described.  In  spite  of  the  strict  pro- 
vision that  undefended  cities,  villages  and  dwellings  are  not  ta 
be  bombarded,  and  where  bombardment  is  necessary  the  com- 
raanding  officer  of  the  attacking  party  must  warn  the  authori- 
ties  that  such  bombardment  is  to  take  place,  Oerman  aero- 
planes and  dirigibles  bombarded  relentlessly  from  the  begin- 
ning. In  Antwerp  a  Zeppelin  threw  explosive  bombs  at  the 
Royal  Palace,  but  the  missiles  went  astray,  demolishing  private 
residences,  killing  eight  persons  and  injm^ing  many.  Servants 
were  killed  in  their  beds  in  one  private  house  when  the  bombs 
tore  away  the  top  of  the  building. 

"In  the  Place  du  Poids  Public  a  bomb  fell  on  the  pave- 
ment. Fragments  scattered  aU  over  the  place.  Not  a  house 
facing  the  square  was  untouched.  A  policeman  was  cut  to 
pieces,  all  that  was  found  of  him  being  a  leg  covered  with  a  few 
rags  of  his  uniform.  Five  other  persons  who  opened  their 
windows  were  blown  to  atoms.  The  bed-rooms  of  two  houses 
facing  one  another  were  visited.  In  the  first  there  were  tliree 
corpses.  Blood  was  scattered  all  over  the  place.  The  floor 
was  covered  with  fragments  of  windows  and  with  blood^soaked 
underwear.  On  the  ceiling  and  walls,  parts  of  intestines  and 
brains  were  visible.  In  the  other  house  two  old  persons  had 
been  killed  while  looking  down  upon  the  street.    Later  Ant- 


THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD.  119 

werp  was  bombarded,  as  was  Heys^op-den-Berg  and  the  city 
of  Malines,  which  was  undefended,  and  where  there  was  not 
a  Belgian  soldier.  At  Malines  the  batteries  fired  sheU  after 
shell  in  the  direction  of  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Rombault  a 
beautiful  edifice,  which  was  hit  many  times  and  badly  damaged, 
though  there  was  no  miUtary  reason  for  the  assault  as  the  town 
was  practically  abandoned. 

The  comn-iission  turned  over  to  President  Wilson  explos- 
ive bullets  used  by  the  Germans  at  Werchter,  and  submitted 
briefs  from  physicians  who  treated  wounds  made  by  the  ex- 
plosive bullets. 

DETAILED  ATROaXIES  OUTLINED. 
A  few  details  of  the  atrocities  are  outlined  as  follows: 
"German  cavaby,  occupying  the  village  of  Linsmeau, 
■were  attacked  by  some  Belgian  infantry  and  two  Gendarmes. 
A  German  officer  was  kiUed  by  our  troops  durmg  the  fight, 
and  subsequently  buried  at  the  request  of  the  Belgian  officer 
in  command,    mne  of  the  civilian  population  took  part  m  the 
fight.    Nevertheless,  the  village  was  invaded  at  dusk  on  Au- 
gust 10  by  a  strong  force  of  German  cavahy,  artiUery  and 
machine  gams.    In  spite  of  the  assurance  given  by  the  Burgo- 
master that  none  of  the  peasants  had  taken  part  in  the  previous 
fighting  two  farms  and  six  outlying  houses  were  destroyed  by 
gun-fire  and  burned.   lAll  the  male  population  were  compelled 
to  come  forward  and  hand  over  what  they  possessed.    No  re- 
cently discharged  firearms  were  found,  but  the  invaders  divided 
the  peasants  into  three  groups.    Those  in  one  group  were 
bound  and  eleven  of  them  placed  in  a  ditch,  whither  they  were 
afterward  found  dead,  their  skuUs  fractm-ed  by  the  butts  of 

German  rifles.  , 

"During  the  night  of  August  10,  German  cavaby  entered 
Velm  in  great  numbers ;  the  inhabitants  were  asleep.  The  Ger- 
mans, without  provocation,  fired  upon  Mr.  Deglimme-Gever  s 
house,  broke  into  it,  destroyed  furniture,  looted  money,  burned 


120 


THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD. 


barns,  hay,  corn  stacks,  farm  implements,  six  oxen,  and  the 
contents  of  the  farmyard.  They  carried  oif  Mme.  Deglimme 
half-naked,  to  a  place  two  miles  away.  She  was  then  let  so 
and  was  fired  upon  as  she  fled,  without  being  hit.  Her  hus- 
band was  earned  away  in  another  direction." 

Farmer  Jeff  Dierckx,  of  Neerhespen,  bears  witness  to  the 
foUowmg  acts  of  cruelty  committed  by  German  cavalry  at 
Orsmael  Neerhespen,  on  August  10.  11  and  12 : 

SHOCKING  BARBARITIES. 

fj,  "t^  ^^^J^^"^  °^  *^^  ^^"^^  ^^"^^«  ^"^  his  arm  sliced  in 
three  longitudmal  cuts;  he  was  then  hanged  head  downward 
and  burned  ahve.  Young  girls  hare  been  raped  and  little  chil- 
dren outraged  at  Orsmael,  where  several  inhabitants  suffered 
mutilations  too  horrible  to  describe.  A  Belgian  soldier  belong- 
ing to  a  battalion  of  cyclist  carbineers  who  had  been  wounded 
and  made  prisoner  was  hanged,  while  another  who  was  tend- 
mg  his  comrade  was  bound  to  a  telegraph  pole  and  shot." 

The  sacking  of  Louvain,  which  was  one  of  the  vile  acts  of 
the  Germans  dm-ing  the  early  days  of  the  war,  is  described 
briefly  m  the  report  of  the  commission  as  follows: 

"The  Germans  entered  Louvain  on  Wednesday,  August 
19,  after  having  set  fire  to  the  towns  through  which  thev 
passed.  •' 

"From  the  moment  of  their  having  entered  the  city  of 
Louvam,  the  Germans  requisitioned  lodgings  and  victuals  for 
their  troops.  They  entered  every  private  bank  of  the  city  and 
took  over  the  bank  funds.  German  soldiers  broke  the  doors 
of  houses  abandoned  by  their  inhabitants,  pillaged  them  and 
indulged  in  orgies. 

"The  German  authorities  took  hostages ;  the  mayor  of  the 
city.  Senator  Vander  Kelen,  the  Vice  Rector  of  the  CathoUc 
Umversity,  the  Dean  of  the  City;  magistrates  and  aldermen 
were  also  detained.    AU  arms  down  to  fencing  foils  had  been 


THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD.  121 

handed  over  to  the  town  administration  and  deposited  by  the 
said  authorities  in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter. 

"In  the  neighboring  village,  Corbeck-Loo,  a  young  ma- 
tron, 22  years  old,  whose  husband  was  in  the  army,  was  sur- 
prised on  Wednesday,  August  19,  with  several  of  her  relatives, 
by  a  band  of  German  soldiers.  The  persons  who  accompanied 
her  were  locked  in  an  abandoned  house,  while  she  was  taken 
into  another  house,  where  she  was  successively  violated  by  five 
soldiers. 

LUSTFUL  CRUELTY  OF  THE  GERMANS. 

**In  the  same  village,  on  Thursday,  August  20,  German 
soldiers  were  searching  a  house  where  a  young  girl  of  16  hved 
with  her  parents.  They  carried  her  into  an  abandoned  house 
and,  while  some  of  them  kept  the  father  and  mother  off,  others 
went  into  the  house,  the  cellar  of  which  was  open,  and  forced 
the  young  woman  to  drink.  Afterwards  they  carried  her  out 
on  the  lawn  in  front  of  the  house  and  violated  her  successively. 
She  continued  to  resist  and  they  pierced  her  breast  with  bay- 
onets. Having  been  abandoned  by  the  soldiers  after  their 
abominable  attacks,  the  girl  was  carried  off  by  her  parents,  and 
the  following  day,  owing  to  the  gravity  of  her  condition,  she 
was  administered  the  last  rites  of  the  church  by  the  priest  of 
the  parish  and  carried  to  the  hospital  at  Louvain." 

Upon  entering  villages  occupied  by  the  Germans  after 
they  were  driven  back  to  Louvain,  the  report  says  the  Belgian 
soldiers  found  that  the  German  soldiers  had  sacked,  ravaged 
and  set  fire  to  the  villages  everywhere,  taking  with  them  and 
driving  before  them  all  the  male  inhabitants.  "Upon  entering 
Hofstade,  the  Belgian  soldiers  found  the  corpse  of  an  old 
woman  who  had  been  killed  by  bayonet  thrusts;  she  still  heH 
in  her  hand  the  needle  with  which  she  was  sewing  when  at- 
tacked; one  mother  and  her  son,  aged  about  15  years,  lay  there 
pierced  with  bayonet  wounds;  one  man  was  found  hung. 

"In  Sempst,  a  neighboring  village,  were  found  corpses 


122  THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD. 

of  two  men  partially  burned.  One  of  them  was  f  omid  with  legs 
cut  off  to  the  knees ;  the  other  was  minus  his  arms  and  legs.  A 
workman  had  been  pierced  with  bayonets,  afterward  while  he 
was  still  living  the  Germans  soaked  him  with  petroleum  and 
locked  him  in  a  house  which  they  set  on  fire.  An  old  man  and 
his  son  had  been  killed  by  sabre  cuts;  a  cyclist  had  been  killed 
by  bullets;  a  woman  coming  out  of  her  house  had  been  stricken 
down  in  the  same  manner." 

A  LAME  EXCUSE  OFFERED. 

Concerning  the  sacking  of  Louvain  itself,  the  report  says 
that  one  detachment  of  the  Germans  met  another  detachment 
while  in  full  flight  from  the  Belgian  soldiers,  and  attacked  one 
another.  This  was  the  basis  for  the  pretext  that  they  had  been 
attacked  by  the  citizenry  of  Louvain  and  was  responsible  for 
the  bombardment  of  the  city.  The  bombarding  lasted  until  10 
o'clock  at  night,  and  afterward  the  German  soldiers  set  fire  toi 
the  dty. 

"The  houses  which  had  not  taken  fire  were  entered  by 
German  soldiers,  who  were  throwing  fire  grenades,  some  of 
which  seem  to  have  been  provided  for  the  occasion.  The  larg- 
est part  of  the  city  of  Louvain,  especially  the  quarters  of  ' Ville 
Haute,*  comprising  the  modern  houses,  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
Peter,  the  University  Halls,  with  the  whole  library  of  the  Uni- 
versity with  its  manuscripts,  its  collections,  the  largest  part  of 
the  scientific  institutions  and  the  town  theatre  were  at  the  mo- 
ment being  consumed  by  flames. 

"The  commission  deems  it  necessary,  in  the  midst  of  these 
horrors,  to  insist  on  the  crime  of  lese-humanity  which  the  de- 
liberate annihilation  of  an  academic  library — a  library  which 
was  one  of  the  treasures  of  our  time — constitutes. 

"Numerous  corpses  of  civilians  covered  the  streets  and 
squares.  On  the  routes  from  Louvain  to  Tirlemont  alone  one 
witness  testifies  to  having  seen  more  than  fifty  of  them.  On 
the  threshold  of  houses  were  found  burnt  corpses  of  people. 


THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD.  123 

who,  surprised  in  their  cellars  by  the  fire,  had  tried  to  escape 
and  feU  into  the  heap  of  Hve  embers.  The  suburbs  of  Louvam 
were  given  up  to  the  same  fate.  It  can  be  said  that  the  whole 
region  between  Malines  and  Louvain  and  most  of  the  subm^bs 
of  Louvain  have  been  devastated  and  destroyed. 

BASE  INDIGNITIES  TO  CLERGYMEN. 
"A  group  of  75  persons,  among  whom  were  several  not- 
ables of  the  city,  such  as  Father  Coloboet  and  a  Spanish  priest, 
and  also  an  American  priest,  were  conducted,  during  the  morn- 
ing of  Wednesday,  August  26,  to  the  square  in  front  of  the 
station.    The  men  were  brutally  separated  from  their  wives 
and  children,  after  having  received  the  most  abominable  treat- 
ment after  repeated  threats  of  being  shot,  and  were  driven  in 
front  of  the  German  troops  as  far  as  the  village  of  Campen- 
hout.    They  were  locked,  during  the  night,  in  the  church.    The 
following  day,  at  4  o'clock,  a  German  officer  came  to  tell  them 
that  they  might  all  confess  themselves  and  that  they  would  be 
shot  half  an  hour  later.    When,  finally,  they  were  released,  the 
report  continues,  they  were  recaptured  by  another  German  bri- 
gade and  compelled  to  march  to  Mahnes,  where  they  were 
finally  liberated. 

''An  eye  witness  testified  that  he  met  nothing  except 

burned  villages,  crazed  peasants,  lifting  to  each  comer  their 

arms,  as  mark  of  submission.  From  each  house  was  hanging  a 

white  flag,  even  from  those  that  had  been  set  on  fixe,  and  rags 

of  them  were  found  hanging  from  the  ruins.    The  fire  began 

a  little  above  the  American  College,  and  the  city  is  entu-ely 

destroyed,  with  the  exception  of  the  town  hall  and  the  depot. 

Today  the  fire  continues  and  the  Germans,  instead  of  trying 

'  to  stop  it— seem  rather  to  maintain  it  by  throwing  straw  into 

the  flames,  as  I  have  myself  seen  behind  the  Hotel  de  Ville. 

The  Cathedral  and  the  theatre  have  been  destroyed  and  fallen 

in,  and  also  the  library.    -The  town  resembles  an  old  city  in 

ruins,  in  the  midst  of  which  drunken  soldiers  are  circulating^ 


124  THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD. 

carrying  around  bottles  of  wine  and  liquor;  the  officers  them- 
selves being  installed  in  arm  chairs,  sitting  around  tables  and 
arinkmg  hke  their  own  men. 

"In  the  streets  dead  horses  are  decaying,  horses  which  are 
completely  inflated,  and  the  smell  of  the  fire  and  the  decayimg 
ammals  is  such  that  it  has  followed  me  for  a  long  time." 

And  the  policy  which  developed  such  outrageous  conduct 
on  the  part  of  the  Kaiser's  soldiers  in  the  early  days  of  the  war 
agamst  which  Belgium  protested  to  the  world,  inspired  brutal 
acts,  ruthlessness  and  cruelty  at  every  stage  and  during  every 
period  of  the  war.  Nowhere  is  there  written  a  single  line  which 
tells  of  the  humanitarian  acts  of  the  German  soldiers.  Those 
y^ho  tight  against  them  acknowledge  their  stoical  bravery,  the 
efficiency  of  the  army,  the  navy  and  the  people  as  a  whole,  but 
there  is  no  reflection  of  refined  instincts  in  any  of  the  acts  of 
Germany  or  the  Germans. 

THE  AMERICAN  MINISTER'S  REPORT. 
Of  .those  conditions  which  existed  in  Belgium  when  the 
Geman  soldiers  overran  the  country,  America's  own  minister 
to  the  devastated  country.  Brand  Whitlock,  sent  a  report  to 
the  State  Department  in  the  beginning  of  1917,  when  Presi- 
dent Wilson  was  protesting  against  the  treatment  accorded  the 
helpless  people  of  Belgium  by  the  Germans. 

Mr.  Whitlock  tells  how  the  Germans  determined  to  put 
the  Bel^ans  thrown  out  of  employment  to  work  for  them.   "In 
August,"  says  the  report,  dealing  with  the  treatment  of  the 
helpless  Belgians,  "Von  Hindenburg  was  appointed  supreme 
commander.    He  is  said  to  have  criticised  Von  Bissing's  policy 
as  too  mild,  and  there  was  a  quarrel;  Von  Bissing  went  to  Ber- 
hn  to  protest,  threatened  to  resign,  but  did  not.    He  returned, 
and  a  German  official  said  that  Belgium  would  now  be  sub- 
jected to  a  more  terrible  regime,  would  learn  what  war  was. 
The  prophecy  has  been  vindicated. 

"The  deportations  began  in  October  in  the  Etape,  at 


b 


THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD.  125 

iGhent  and  at  Bruges,  The  policy  spread;  the  rich  industrial 
districts  at  Hainaut,  the  mines  and  steel  works  about  Charleroi 
were  next  attacked,  and  they  seized  men  in  Brabant,  even  in 
Brussels,  despite  some  indications  and  even  predictions  of  the 
civil  authorities  that  the  policy  was  about  to  be  abandoned, 

"As  by  one  of  the  ironies  of  life  the  winter  has  been  more 
excessively  cold  than  Belgium  has  ever  known  it  and  while 
many  of  those  who  presented  themselves  were  adequately  pro- 
tected against  the  cold,  many  of  them  were  without  overcoats. 
The  men,  shivering  from  cold  and  fear,  the  parting  from  weep- 
ing wives  and  children,  the  barrels  of  brutal  Uhlans,  all  this 
made  the  scene  a  pitiable  and  distressing  one. 

RAGE,  TERROR  AND  DESPAIR. 

"The  rage,  the  terror  and  despair  excited  by  this  measure 
all  over  Belgium  were  beyond  anything  we  had  witnessed  since 
the  day  the  Germans  poured  into  Brussels.  The  delegates  of 
the  commission  for  relief  in  Belgium,  returning  to  Brussels, 
told  the  most  distressing  stories  of  the  scenes  of  cruelty  and 
sorrow  attending  the  seizures.  And  daily,  hourly  almost,  since 
that  time,  appalhng  stories  have  been  related  by  Belgians  com- 
ing to  the  legation.  !It  is  impossible  for  us  to  verify  them,  first 
because  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  exercise  all  possible  tact  in 
dealing  with  the  subject  at  all,  and  secondly  because  there  is 
no  means  of  communication  between  the  Occupations  Gebiet 
and  the  Etappey  Gebiet. 

"I  am  constantly  in  receipt  of  reports  from  all  over  Bel- 
gium that  tend  to  bear  the  stories  one  constantly  hears  of  bru- 
tality and  cruelty.  A  number  of  men  sent  back  to  Mons  are 
said  to  be  in  a  dying  condition,  many  of  them  tubercular.  At 
Molines  and  at  Antwerp  returned  men  have  died,  their  friends 
asserting  that  they  have  been  victims  of  neglect  and  cruelty,  of 
cold,  of  exposure,  of  hunger. 

"I  have  had  requests  from  the  burgomasters  of  ten  com- 
munes asking  that  permission  be  obtained  to  send  to  the  de- 


126  THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD. 

ported  men  in  Germany  packages  of  food  similar  to  those  that 
are  being  sent  to  prisoners  of  war.  Thus  far  the  German  au- 
thorities have  refused  to  permit  this  except  in  special  instances, 
and  returning  Belgians  claim  that  even  when  such  packages 
are  received  they  are  used  by  the  camp  authorities  only  as  an- 
other means  of  coercing  them  to  sign  the  agreements  to  work. 
A  MORTAL  BLOW  TO  BELGIANS. 

**By  the  deportation  of  Belgians  to  work  in  Germany," 
says  Mr.  Whitlock's  report,  "they  have  dealt  a  mortal  blow  to 
any  prospect  they  may  ever  have  had  of  being  tolerated  by  the 
population  of  Flanders;  in  tearing  away  from  nearly  every 
humble  home  in  the  land  a  husband  and  a  father  or  a  son  and 
brother;  they  have  lighted  a  fire  of  hatred  that  will  never  go 
out;  they  have  brought  home  to  every  heart  in  the  land,  in  a 
way  that  will  impress  its  horror  indeUbly  on  the  memory  of 
three  generations,  a  realization  of  what  German  methods  mean, 
not  as  with  the  early  atrocities  in  the  heat  of  passion  and  the 
first  lust  of  war,  but  by  one  of  those  deeds  that  make  one  de- 
spair of  the  future  of  the  human  race,  a  deed  coldly  planned, 
studiously  matured,  and  deliberately  and  systematically  exe- 
cuted, a  deed  so  cruel  that  German  soldiers  are  said  to  have 
wept  in  its  execution,  and  so  monstrous  that  even  German  ofii- 
cers  are  now  said  to  be  ashamed." 

And  if  these  acts  were  not  sufficient  to  convince  the  world 
that  Germany  "is  without  the  pale"  so  far  as  civilized  warfare 
is  concerned  her  conduct  in  wantonly  destroying  property  in 
•Flanders  while  in  retreat  could  permit  of  no  other  conclusion. 

After  the  violation  of  Belgiimi  and  the  destruction  of  the 
Lusitania  and  the  adoption  of  the  policy  of  sinking  neutral 
ships  on  sight  for  military  advantage,  or  ''necessity,"  why 
shouldn't  the  soldiers  pollute  wells,  kill  trees,  carry  off  the 
girls,  smash  the  household  furniture  not  worth  taking  away 
and  smear  the  pictures  on  the  wall,  just  for  revenge  or  in  the 
sheer  lust  of  destruction? 


THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD.  127 

It  makes  no  difference,  so  far  as  the  principles  of  human- 
ity are  concerned,  whether  the  German  army  is  in  victory  or 
suffering  defeat,  advancing  or  retreating.  The  treatment  ac- 
corded the  evacuated  cities  of  the  Somme  district  was  foretold 
by  the  treatment  of  the  cities  occupied  early  in  the  war.  Here 
is  the  wording  of  an  order  posted  during  the  victorious  invasion 
of  Belgium: 

"Order — To  the  people  of  Liege.  The  population  of  An- 
denne,  after  making  a  display  of  peaceful  intentions  toward 
our  troops,  attacked  them  in  the  most  treacherous  manner. 
With  my  authority  the  general  commanding  these  troops  has 
reduced  the  town  to  ashes  and  has  had  110  persons  shot.  I 
bring  this  fact  to  the  knowledge  of  the  people  of  Liege  in  order 
that  they  may  know  what  fate  to  expect  should  they  adopt  a 
similar  attitude. 

"GENERjAL  von  BULOW. 

"Liege,  Aug.  22, 1914." 

CRUEL  EXTREME  OF  PUNISHMENT. 

And  yet  this  order  showed  only  a  cruel  extreme  of  pun- 
ishment where  some  punislmient  was  to  be  expected.  It  was 
left  for  the  retreating  Germans  of  1917  to  destroy,  without 
provocation  and  without  purpose,  motived  by  revenge  and  ob- 
sessed by  the  Nietschean  doctrine  of  "spare  not." 

Before  Baupaume  was  evacuated  it  was  deliberately  con- 
verted into  a  mass  of  muck.  iThere  is  no  Bapaume  now.  It  is 
perfectly  understandable  that  the  retreating  soldiers  should 
destroy  their  trenches  and,  put  up  the  question,  "Tommy,  how 
do  you  like  your  new  trenches?"  But  why  smear  filth  over 
the  photograph  of  three  little  girls,  a  family  treasure?  All 
around  Bapaume  the  villages  were  looted  and  the  night  the 
deliverers  entered  the  destroyers  made  the  sky  lurid  with  the 
fires  of  towns  and  hamlets.  Some  300  in  the  evacuated  region 
were  burned. 

At  Nesle,  Roye  and  Ham  there  was  not  time  enough  to 


128  THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD. 

destroy  everything.  The  house  of  a  doctor  at  Nesle,  a  spe- 
cially  attractive  home,  was  not  blown  down  for  strategic  pur- 
poses, but  some  soldiers  did  find  time  to  drive  axes  through  the 
mahogany  panels  of  the  beds  and  smash  the  clocks  and  mirrors. 
They  were  angry  at  being  compelled  to  leave  the  house. 

Villages  like  Cressy,  near  Nesle,  where  a  shell  never  fell 
in  the  course  of  the  war,  have  been  completely  destroyed. 
PERONNE  A  HOPELESS  RUIN. 

There  is  not  a  habitable  house  left  in  Peronne.  The  six- 
teenth century  church  of  St.  Jean  is  but  a  relic.  W.  Beach 
Thomas  wrote  after  the  retreat  that  nothing  was  left  that  was 
valuable  enough  to  be  worth  collection  by  a  penny  tinker  or  a 
rag-and-bone  merchant.  Foul  what  you  cannot  have,  was  the 
motto. 

The  famous  ruins  of  the  Feudal  Castle  of  Coucy,  one  of 
the  finest  relics  of  architecture  of  its  period,  was  wantonly 
blown  up  by  the  Germans  on  retreat.  It  was  built  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  by  Enguerrand  III  and  passed  to  the  French 
crown  in  1498,  and  was  one  of  the  great  historic  landmarks  of 
Northern  France. 

Cpucy  was  one  of  the  noblest  relics  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
respected  by  the  most  barbarous  wars  of  the  past,  whose  don- 
jon (greatest  in  all  Europe)  dates  almost  from  Charlemagne, 
harmless,  time-wrecked,  illustrious  Coucy  I 

To  give  an  idea  of  Coucy's  importance,  the  French,  in 
their  first  astonishment  and  sorrow,  proposed  to  make  reprisals 
on  Hindenburg,  should  it  take  ten  years.  Of  course,  they 
will  not;  it  is  not  their  way. 

Coucy  is  a  mountain  of  blasted  stones.  Shoun  Kelly, 
American,  owned  one  of  the  outer  towers  of  the  great  castle 
and  the  story  of  its  ownership  is  the  American  antithesis  of 
German  ravage.  Americans  were  always  faithful  tourists  to 
Coucy;  but  among  them,  one  loved  more  than  all  the  glorious 
old  ruin  and  its  story  which  began  with  Enguerrand,  the  Sire 


THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD.  129 

of  Coucy,  in  the  year  1210.  This  was  the  late  Edmund  Kelly, 
of  New  York  and  Paris,  international  lawyer  and  for  many 
years  counsel  of  the  American  Embassy  in  Paris.  He  medi- 
tated on  the  motto  of  old  Enguerrand:  "I  am  not  king,  nor 
prince,  nor  duke,  nor  even  count :  I  am  the  Sire  of  Coucy  I"  In 
fact,  the  Sire  made  a  record  for  standing  off  local  kings. 

"He  was  a  good  American  ahead  of  his  time,"  said  Law- 
yer Kelly;  and  he  took  to  reading  up  the  ancient  chronicles, 
how  Enguerrand's  descendants  stood  off  royalty  for  some  200 
years,  imtil  finally  bought  out  by  the  wealthy  Louis  of  Orleans, 
and  all  the  later  glories  of  the  place.  Mazarin  dismantled 
Coucy,  but  left  it  standing  in  its  beauty;  and  Lawyer  Kelly  dis- 
covered it  to  be  a  State  museum,  impossible  to  be  purchased,  in 
these  latter  days,  even  by  a  milhonaire.  Not  being  one,  he 
preferred  it  so,  loving  Coucy  more  than  ever,  the  cultured 
American  did  the  next  best  thing. 

A  LITTLE  TOW^N  REDUCED. 

The  little  town,  once  so  rich,  had  dwindled  since  Mazarin. 
On  the  castle  side  stood  two  massive  towers  of  the  inner  de- 
fense, belonging  to  the  town.  Mr.  Kelly  asked  Mayor  and 
department  legislature  to  make  a  price  on  the  nearest.  As  soon 
as  he  had  bought  his  tower,  he  used  loving  care  restoring  it. 
He  pierced  windows  through  walls  16  feet  thick.  He  built 
rooms  in  three  stories,  furnishing  them  in  massive  antique  style. 
The  tower  roof  was  his  shady  terrace,  covered  with  a  little 
grove  of  century-old  trees !  From  it  he  dominated  Coucy.  All 
its  soul  of  beauty  lay  beneath  his  view. 

All  was  systematically  blown  up,  the  town,  the  towers,  the 
castle,  by  retreating  Germans  in  their  rage.  Just  masses  of 
crumbled  stones.  The  German  papers  boast  that  it  took  28 
tons  of  high  explosives,  and  any  one  can  see,  this  hour,  the 
plain  of  Coucy  covered  with  a  white  layer  of  powdered  lime- 
stone, for  miles  around. 

What  for?    To  clear  a  battlefield,  they  say.    It  is  not  true. 


130  THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD. 

Nothing  is  cleared.    The  masses  of  crumbled  stone  remained, 
when  they  fled  their  "battlefield." 

The  donjon  was  very  high.  It  stood  on  a  kind  of  bluff 
or  elevation,  overlooking  the  country,  and  before  the  days  of 
aeroplanes  it  might  have  been  used  for  observation.  The  don- 
jon  walls  were  16  yards  thick,  not  feet,  but  yards!  "No  other 
tower  in  Europe  had  those  dimensions.  They  tell  a  story  about 
Mazarin.  He  deemed  so  strong  a  place,  so  near  to  Paris,  might 
be  dangerous  to  the  Crown;  so  he  dismantled  Coucy  militarily, 
without  destroying  its  architectural  beauty.  The  donjon  wor- 
ried him  in  those  days  when  artillery  could  make  no  impression 
on  its  massive  thickness.  So  Mazarin  put  16  barrels  of  powder 
inside  the  tov/er,  and  set  them  off.  The  tower  just  converted 
itself  into  gun  barrel !  The  pov/der  blew  out  all  the  stories  and 
the  roof — shot  them  up  like  a  gun  pointed  at  the  sky!  But 
the  tower  stood,  exactly  as  before. 

OF  MASSIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  masonry  was  admittedly  the  heaviest  achieved  by  tile 
Middle  Ages.  From  the  donjon  extended  three  gi'eat  vaulted 
halls.  Massive  buildings  continued.  There  was  a  Gothic 
chapel,  a  Tribunal  Hall,  the  Hall  of  the  Nine  Peers  (whose 
statues  remained),  the  Hall  of  the  Nine  Countesses  (whose 
medallion-portraits  were  carved  on  the  monumental  chimney) . 
There  was  a  Romanesque  chapel  (relic  from  Charlemagne,  like 
the  original  donjon),  the  separate  Fortified  Chateau  of  the 
Chatelain  ^(the  Sire's  First  Officer) ,  and  so  on,  and  so  on, 

3^e  retreating  Germans  have  not  only  blown  up  Coucy, 
bu?  that  other  priceless  relic,  the  Tower  of  the  Grand  Constable 
and  the  entire  historic  Chateau  of  Ham,  and  equally  the  Castle 
of  Peronne,  a  jewel  of  beauty — all  in  one  corner  of  the  Val- 
lois!  On  the  smoking  wreck  of  Peronne,  they  left  a  humorous 
placard : 

'^Nicht  aergen!  Tur  wundern!  Don't  be  angry,  just 
wonder!"    JSToyon  and  Peronne  are  sacked  and  ruined.     At 


THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAT>  131 

Chauny  1800  houses  out  of  2500  were  deliberately  burned,  and 
at  a  distance  tliey  bombarded  the  remainder,  full  of  old  folks 
and  children  whom  they  had  parked  there.    (All  the  pubhc 
buildings,  churches,  hospitals  and  poorhouse  were  blown  up. 
Three  hundred  towns  and  villages  were  burning  at  one  time  in 
this  small  section  of  the  Cradel  of  France.    Hindenburg  was 
at  Roisel  when  they  rounded  up  the  populations,  went  through 
their  pockets  for  their  money  (giving  "receipts"),  took  their 
clothes  off  their  backs  (so  that  all  the  American  rehef  agencies 
in  Paris  were  overwhelmed  with  telegi^ams  of  appeal)    and 
burgled  all  the  safes  in  banks  and  business  houses  before  set- 
ting fire  to  the  town  and  blowing  up  the  main  street! 
ACCORDING  TO  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  V^^AR. 
The  German  official  communique  said  that  it  was  "all  done 
uniquely  according  to  the  technical  principles  of  modern  war." 
At  Berlin  they  caused  an  American  correspondent  to  cable 
these  words  to  his  papers:  "The  enemy  will  find  great  difiiculty 
to  take  shelter  on  a  battlefield  where  everything  has  been  com- 
pletely razed.    We  regret  the  destruction  of  a  beautiful  region 
of  France,  but  it  was  necessary  to  transform  it  into  a  clear  field 
of  battle  before  we  quit  it." 

They  blew  up  the  precious  Romanesque  Church  of  Tracy- 
le-Val  (which  dates  before  the  Gothic).  The  chm^ch  was  sit- 
uated in  the  midst  of  the  great  forest  of  Laigue;  they  blew  up 
the  church— and  left  the  forest  standing!  No  battlefield  was 
cleared,  but  they  hacked  the  bark  to  kill  great  noble  trees  by 
thousands.  They  made  no  effort  to  clear  the  forest ;  but  weep- 
ing old  French  peasants  told  how  half  a  German  regiment  was 
occupied  three  days  in  barking  trees  to  prevent  the  sap  from 
mounting.  The  crushed  pearl  of  architecture  lies  in  a  dvins- 
forest.  ^    ^ 

At  Le  ISTovion,  torch  in  hand,  they  burned  223  houses;  but 
all  the  gutted  walls  are  standing. 

What  technical  principles  of  war  command  the  wholesale 


132  THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD. 

destruction  of  young  fruit  trees?  In  20  orchards,  by  count, 
in  sweet  Leury  (hidden  at  the  bottom  of  a  valley)  every  peach, 
plum,  apricot  and  pear  tree  has  been  assassinated — Shacked  and 
standing,  when  the  trunks  are  thick,  and  sprawling,  severed  by 
one  blow  of  a  sharp  hatchet,  young  trees  from  the  thickness  of 
jrour  wrists  to  your  thumb.  The  French,  with  loving  care, 
trained  peach  and  pear  trees  against  sunny  walls,  as  if  they 
were  grapevines.  The  slender  trunks  are  cut— and  the  garden 
walls  left  standing. 

DESECRATION  OF  TREES. 

The  soldiers  spared  neither  the  orchards  nor  the  single 
trees  that  took  a  generation  to  grow,  and  would  have  borne 
fruit  for  generations  to  come.  Reapers  and  binders  and  other 
farming  machines  were  collected  and  broken  to  pieces.  One 
might  see  a  measure  of  advantage  that  the  deliverers  would 
gain  from  these  things  if  not  destroyed,  but  it  is  an  awful  war 
doctrine  that  refuses  to  discriminate  between  the  immediate  and 
the  eventual,  the  direct  and  the  indirect,  the  important  and  the 
negligible  advantage  that  would  impoverish  posterity  to  get  a 
dime  in  cash.  No  military  advantage  is  sufficient  motive  for 
such  wanton  ravishment.    It  is  military  fanaticism. 

Ambassador  Sharp,  after  a  100-mile  trip  through  the 
evacuated  territory,  declared  that  never  before  in  the  history 
of  the  world  had  there  been  such  a  thorough  destruction  by 
either  a  vanquished  or  victorious  army. 

One  thing  alone  was  left,  after  the  red-brick  villages  had 
been  turned  into  heaps  and  the  murdered  fruit  trees  into  black 
fagots,  on  the  hill  outside  of  St.  Quentin.  This  was  the  log 
hut  and  shooting  box  of  the  Kaiser's  son,  Eitel  Friederick.  Its 
white-barked  beech  was  unburnt,  its  glass  windows  unbroken, 
its  inside  adornments  unlooted,  the  tables  and  chairs  of  its  ter- 
race beer  garden  remained.  All  around  the  works  of  man  and 
God  were  destroyed.  The  contrast  made  this  destroyer's  lodge 
a  sort  of  boast  of  his  destruction. 


THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD.  133 

The  shocking  ruin  to  human  life  in  the  evacuated  region 
is  of  even  greater  moment.  The  half-starved  civiHans  of  Ba- 
paume  were  forced  to  make  trenches  there  and  later  for  the 
defense  of  Cambrai  also.  All  men  and  boys  strong  enough  to 
work  y/ere  taken  along  with  the  retreating  forces.  Near  Pe- 
ronne  some  hundreds  of  old  men,  women  and  children  were 
found  locked  in  a  barn.  One  woman  pathetically  asked  of  an 
English  officer,  ''Are  you  many?"  And  he  was  able  to  answer, 
"We  are  two  miUions  now,"  and  see  her  anxiety  turned  to  re- 
hef  and  joy.  Children  who  had  been  slowly  starving  for  a 
year  wandered  about  the  ruins  of  their  homes,  but  soon  found 
reasons  for  smiling  at  the  soldiers  who  had  rescued  them. 
NEITHER  MEAT  NOR  MIJLK. 

These  children  had  had  no  meat  for  months  and  no  milk 
for  a  year  and  had  almost  forgotten  the  taste  of  butter.  They- 
probably  never  received  a  quarter  of  the  rations  Americans 
sent.  Girls  were  compelled  to  attend  the  market  gardens,  and 
then  the  Germans  took  all  the  produce.  The  region  was  deso- 
lated and  left  inhabited  by  women  and  children  moribund  with 
misery  and  starvation. 

At  Noyon,  where  the  Germans  had  concentrated  10,000 
Belgian  refugees,  they  promised  to  leave  the  American  Rehef 
Committee  with  sufficient  supplies  to  feed  them.  But  the  last 
patrols  completely  sacked  the  American  relief  storehouses  of 
all  eatables  and  then  dynamited  the  building.  And  it  was  from 
this  place  that  fifty  young  women,  from  18  to  25  years  of  age, 
were  taken  by  the  officers.  Their  distracted  mothers  were  told 
that  they  were  to  be  used  as  "officers'  servants." 

At  Ham,  when  a  mother  of  six  children,  seeing  her  hus- 
band and  two  eldest  daughters  being  carried  away,  remon- 
strated, she  was  told  that  as  an  alternative  she  might  find  their 
bodies  in  a  canal  in  the  rear  of  the  house. 

^  Nothing  could  be  more  significant  of  the  Government's 
attitude  than  the  incident  told  by  James  W.  Gerard.     The 


134  THE  THINGS  THAT  IviADE  MEN  MAD. 

people  of  a  town  were  imprisoned  or  fined  for  their  conduct; 
toward  a  delayed  train  of  Canadian  prisoners.  When  he  heard 
it  he  thought  that  at  last  the  Government  was  going  to  put  a 
stop  to  the  maltreatment  of  prisoners.  But  he  learned  on  in- 
vesigation  that  the  townsfolk  had  been  punished  for  giving  a 
little  food  and  drink  to  the  starving  and  fainting  prisoners. 

And  yet  the  most  singularly  brutal  phase  of  this  destruc- 
tion of  nature  and  wealth  and  art  and  life  is  the  German  de- 
fense of  it.  War  is  always  hell  and  most  of  the  av/ful  things 
in  this  war  have  had  their  counterparts  in  other  conflicts,  though 
the  Teutonic  element  has  brought  some  peculiar  refinements  of 
cussedness  and  has  given  a  thoroughness  and  ''pep"  and  "kick" 
to  the  war  business. 

BETTER  PREPARED  NEXT  TIME. 
German  writers,  instead  of  making  excuses  for  turning 
the  nation  into  a  war  machine  for  forty  years,  complain  that 
Germany  was  not  prepared  as  she  should  have  been  and  would 
be  better  prepared  next  time.  Her  professors  do  not  regret 
that  the  soldiers  at  the  front  are  so  unrestrained  in  cruelty,  but 
urge  that  they  are  too  soft  and  kind  to  make  effective  war.  The 
German  correspondents  all  write  enthusiastically  of  the  devas- 
tation of  the  country  they  are  leaving  and  of  the  desert  created 
by  German  genius.  Editors  speak  of  the  mercy  which  tern.- 
pered  the  necessary  hardness  towards  tliis  once  beautiful  stretch 
of  country  and  its  inliabitants.  The  destruction  of  property 
which  can  serve  no  military  purpose  is  defended  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  legitimate  from  a  strategic  point  of  view. 

This  all  amounts  to  saying  everything  must  give  way  to 
the  considerations  of  war.  It  is  taking  the  argument  in  the 
fable  of  the  wolf  and  the  lamb  as  serious  philosophy  and  accept- 
ing the  position  of  the  wolf.  They  fail  entirely  to  see  the  humor 
of  the  fable,  and  hence  the  fallacy  of  the  wolfs  argument. 

The  greatest  hope  of  civilization,  which  trembled  for  a; 
time  before  the  spectre  of  German  barbarity,  is  that  frightful- 


i 


THE  THINGS  THAT  MADE  MEN  MAD.  135 

ness  caniiot  endure  the  long  and  full  test.  The  great  initial 
advantages  are  more  than  offset  by  new  opponents.  The  gain 
of  the  invasion  of  Belgium  was  canceled  by  England  coming 
into  the  war.  The  advantage  against  England  of  the  U-boat 
campaign  was  more  than  canceled  by  the  entrance  of  the 
United  States  in  the  war. 

Irvin  Cobb  says  that  the  trouble  with  the  Germans  is  that 
they  are  not  "good  sports  and  lack  a  sense  of  humor.  It  is 
impossible  to  conceive  of  a  group  of  German  ofBcers  playing 
football  or  baseball  or  cricket  and  abiding  by  the  rules  of  the 
game.  If  Barbara  Frietchie  had  said  to  a  Prussian  Stonewall 
Jackson,  *  Shoot,  if  you  must,  my  gray  old  head/  he'd  have 
done  it  as  a  matter  of  course." 


CHAPTER  VII. 
THE  SLINKING  SUBMAEINK 

A  VoBACiOTJS  Sea  Monstee— The  Euthless  Destructive  Policy  of  Gebmant— 
Starvation  of  Nations  the  Goai^How  the  Submarines  Operate— Some 
Personal  Experiences. 

ALMOST  the  entire  story  of  the  world  war  is  written 
around  the  development  of  the  submarine.  One  can 
scarcely  think  of  the  terrible  conflict  without  bringing 
to  mind  the  wonderful  "underseas"  boat  which  has  made  in- 
famous Germany  famous.  The  truth  is  that,  in  so  far  as  Amer- 
ica is  concerned,  the  conflict  was  precipitated  by  the  ruthless 
submarine  warfare  which  Germany  waged  as  part  of  her  plan 
to  starve  out  England,  France,  Belgium— and  all  nations 
which  opposed  her. 

The  slinking  submarine  proved  an  efficient  instrument, 
whose  activities  clearly  indicated  the  diabohcal  intent  and  pur- 
pose of  Germany  to  make  the  whole  world  suffer,  if  necessary, 
to  the  end  that  she  might  gain  her  point  and  perpetuate  the 
HohenzoUern  dynasty.  It  was  not  so  much  that  her  subma- 
rines wrought  havoc— for  death  and  disaster  stalk  always  with 
war— but  the  methods  by  which  Germany  waged  their  warfare 
and  disregarded  all  the  rules  which  had  been  laid  down  for  the 
guidance  of  civihzed  comitries  at  war  proved  conclusively  that 
even  the  innocent  could  expect  no  quarter  from  her.    _ 

The  story  of  the  sinking  of  the  brave  ocean  steamship 
Lusitania  on  May  7, 1915,  contains  in  its  brief  recital  a  typical 
illustration  of  Germany's  lack  of  humanitarian  mstincts.  Ihe 
vessel,  torpedoed  off  the  coast  of  Ireland,  went  to  the  bottom 
of  the  ocean,  carrying  to  death  more  than  1150  persons,  many 
of  them  prominent  Americans.  With  an  audaciousness  which 
has  no  counterpart  in  the  history  of  civilized  warfare,  German 

136 


THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE.  137 

agents  in  the  United  States  had  caused  advertisements  to  be 
printed  in  the  public  press,  warning  citizens  against  sailing 
on  the  vessel,  and  advised  that  she  was  in  danger  of  being 
destroyed. 

The  world  stood  aghast  and  believed  it  impossible  that 
Germany  should  carry  out  her  threat,  but  they  were  soon  to  be 
disillusioned.  Because  the  handsome  vessel  passed  through  a 
zone  of  the  seas  which  the  Teuton  war  lords  declared  block- 
aded, they  sent  a  torpedo  from  an  underseas  boat  into  her 
bowels.  The  horrors  of  that  event  are  still  fresh  in  the  minds 
of  millions.  No  such  ruthless  and  wanton  destruction  of  inno- 
cent human  beings  had  been  accomplished  by  a  so-called  civili- 
zation at  war. 

THE  DUTIES  OF  WAR  CAST  ASIDE. 

Articles  of  The  Hague  agreement  defining  the  rights  and 
duties  of  nations  at  war,  and  which  Germany  had  accepted, 
were  thrust  aside  and  disregarded  by  Imperial  Germany.  The 
HohenzoUern  dynasty  was  above  rules  and  regulations.  Inter- 
national law  and  the  rights  of  non-combatants  at  sea  were  as 
nothing.  That  all  nations  had  agreed  that  the  enemy  ship  must 
give  the  captain  of  the  vessel  attacked  opportunity  to  land 
innocent  passengers  was  forgotten.  There  had  not  been  a 
word  of  warning. 

And  Germany,  and  the  adherents  of  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment, expressing  regret  that  Americans  should  have  been  sac- 
rificed, professed  deep  sorrow  on  one  hand  and  on  the  other 
shouted  with  glee.  America  protested  vigorously,  quoting  the 
laws  and  demanding  that  Germany  recognize  them — ^not  mere- 
ly that  she  leave  American  vessels  alone — -and  give  assurance 
that  no  such  further  acts  would  be  committed. 

Contending  that  the  sinking  of  the  ship  was  justifiable,  in 
the  exigencies  of  war,  Germany  ceased  for  a  short  time  her 
wanton  sinking  of  boats  without  warning.  For  almost  a  year 
her  underseas  crafts  had  been  preying  upon  the  small  British 


138  THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE. 

coasting  vessels,  and  sunk  hundreds  of  fishing  boats,  trawlers 
and  steamships.  England's  mercantile  marine  was  the  object 
of  the  Teuton's  attacks,  and  no  one  had  anticipated  any  danger 
to  Americans  or  American  interests. 

Germany  had  no  reasons  for  desiring  to  attack  American 
boats  and  she  promised  to  mend  her  ways.  There  followed  a 
brief  period  in  which  no  vessels  were  sunk  on  which  w^ere  Amer- 
icans, and  then  without  warning  the  campaign  against  all  ves- 
sels was  renewed.  A  dozen  were  sunk  on  which  were  Ameri- 
can seamen  or  non-combatant  passengers,  none  of  whom  was 
given  w^arning  or  time  to  land  before  a  torpedo  sent  the  boat  to 
the  bottom  of  the  ocean.  Threats  on  the  part  of  President 
Wilson  to  take  action  against  Germany  finally  brought  another 

cessation. 

GRO¥/ING  DISTRESS  AND  AMAZEMENT. 

"The  sinking  of  the  British  passenger  steamship  Fabala 
and  other  German  acts  constitute  a  series  of  events  which  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  has  observed  with  growing 
concern,  distress  and  amazement,"  said  President  Wilson  in  a 
note  on  the  submarine  warfare.  "This  Government  cannot 
admit  the  adoption  of  such  measm^es  or  such  a  warning  of 
danger  as  in  any  degree  an  abbreviation  of  the  rights  of  Amer- 
ican shipmasters  or  American  citizens,  bound  on  lawful  errands 
as  passengers  on  merchant  ships  of  belligerent  nationality.  It 
must  hold  the  Imperial  German  Government  to  a  strict  ac- 
countability for  any  infringement  of  those  rights,  international 
or  incidental. 

"The  objection  to  their  present  method  of  attack  lies  in 
the  practical  impossibility  of  employing  submarines  in  the  de- 
struction of  commerce  without  disregarding  those  rules  of  fair- 
ness, reason,  justice  and  humanity  which  all  modern  opinions 
regard  as  imperative. 

"American  citizens  act  within  their  indisputable  rights  in 
taking  their  ships  and  traveling  wherever  their  legitimate  busi- 
ness calls  them  upon  the  high  seas. 


THE  SLINKING  SUBMAKINE.  139 

**Ko  v,^ariung  that  an  unlawful  and  an  inhuman  act  will  be 
committed  can  possibly  be  accepted  as  an  excuse  or  palliation 
for  that  act,  or  as  an  abatement  of  the  responsibility  for  its 
commission.    *    *    * 

"The  Imperial  German  Government  will  not  expect  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  to  omit  any  word  or  any  act 
necessary  to  the  performance  of  its  sacred  duty  or  the  inalien- 
able rights  of  the  United  States  and  its  citizens,  and  of  safe- 
guarding their  free  exercise  and  enjoymtent." 

WHOLESALE  DESTRUCTION  OF  VESSELS. 

Apparently  Germany  modified  her  submarine  policy  for  a 
period  of  upward  of  a  year,  or  until  in  February,  1917,  when 
to  the  astonished  world  she  threw  aside  all  pretense  and  de- 
clared her  intention  of  destroying  any  vessel  which  attempted 
to  cross  or  sailed  into  a  zone  v/liich  she  established  along  the 
English  coast  and  around  English  and  French  ports.  Amer- 
ica's further  protests  availed  not;  her  citizens,  many  of  them, 
went  to  the  bottom  of  the  seas,  and  some  of  them  suffered 
almost  unbelievable  cruelties  or  neglect,  when  the  captain  of  a 
German  sea  raider  with  some  humanitarian  instincts  permitted 
these  innocent  passengers  or  seamen  to  be  rescued  from  the 
torpedoed  vessels  on  which  they  were. 

Even  the  Red  Cross  vessels  and  Belgian  relief  ships  carry-^ 
ing  supplies  and  food  to  the  maimed  or  sick  at  war  and  the 
starving  children  of  Belgium  did  not  escape  the  torpedo  from 
the  submarine.  English  hospital  ships  were  attacked,  and  men 
imable  to  protect  themselves  were  subjected  to  danger  because 
the  Germans  feared  that  something  might  be  carried  on  the 
boat  which  would  prove  valuable  to  the  AlKed  forces  in  making 
war. 

Dozens — even  hundreds  of  vessels  of  all  sorts — ^were  sunk 
from  week  to  week.  Food  and  supplies  for  the  Allied  forces 
were  destroyed,  until  both  England  and  France  were  threat- 
ened with  starvation. 


140  THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE. 

'All  this  was  the  work  of  the  submarine. 

One  smiled  twenty-five  years  ago  when  he  read  that  highly 
imaginative  story  of  Jules  Verne,  ''Twenty  Thousand  Leagues 
Under  the  Sea/'  and  wondered  if  it  would  ever  be  possible  for 
man  to  create  such  a  marvelous  imderseas  craft  as  that  which 
the  famous  French  ^Titer  described.  Today  the  imaginative 
detail  of  the  submarine  which  the  novelist  described  has  been 
crystallized,  and  the  world  has  learned  that  dreams  sometimes 
come  true. 

Marvelous  things  have  been  developed  by  the  war  which 
is  involving  the  peace  and  security  of  the  world,  but  no  single 
device  has  had  such  an  effect  upon  the  warfare  and  upon  the 
methods  of  waging  it  as  the  diabolical  submarine,  which,  like 
an  assassin  in  the  night,  sneaks  upon  the  great  ships  along  the 
water  highways  of  the  world  and  sends  them  with  their  human 
freight  to  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 

TORPEDO'S  DEADLY  WORK. 

A  giant  cigar-shaped  missile,  whose  nose  is  pointed  with 
guncotton  and  filled  with  high  explosives— and  which  the 
world  knows  as  the  torpedo — launches  forth  from  the  subma- 
rine, and  speeding  under  the  drive  of  a  propeller  at  the  stern 
steers  its  way  into  the  side  of  the  battleship  or  great  steamship. 
The  torpedo  plunges  into  the  bowels  of  the  vessel.  There  is  a 
tremendous  explosion,  and  the  watertight  compartments  of  the 
vessel  are  torn  open;  the  boat  fills,  and  the  pride  of  the  seas  is 
no  more. 

Had  the  vessel's  master  and  her  crew  any  warning?  No; 
unless  the  vigilant  officer  on  the  bridge  should  note  a  thin  pole 
with  a  hooked  end  projecting  above  the  surface  of  the  ocean 
some  miles  away,  and  tm-ning  his  glasses  upon  it  discover  that 
it  is  the  "eye"  of  a  submarine — ^the  periscope — which  is  pro- 
truding above  the  surface.  Then  he  may  turn  his  larger  vessel 
and  ram  the  submarine,  or  change  the  course  of  his  craft  so  that 
the  torpedo  launched  by  the  submarine  will  miss  its  mark,  oi: 


THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE.  141 

perhaps  expert  gunners  may  turn  the  muzzles  of  their  rapid- 
fire  guns  upon  the  underseas  craft  and  riddle  it  before  it  can 
get  far  enough  below  the  surface  of  the  water  to  make  the 
attack  upon  it  futile. 

EFFICIENCY  OF  THE  SUBMARINE. 

The  enormous  inroads  on  the  world's  shipping  made  by 
German  submarines  during  the  war  shows  the  efficiency  of  this 
diabolical  device.  In  the  first  two  years  and  a  half  of  the  war 
statistics  were  compiled  to  show  that  more  than  10  per  cent  of 
the  world's  merchant  marine  was  destroyed  by  Germany's 
imderseas  craft  of  the  U-boat  type.  Incidentally,  the  name 
U-boat  as  applied  to  submarines  developed  because  Germany, 
instead  of  naming  these  slinking  boats,  as  is  the  custom  with 
surface-cruising  vessels,  painted  upon  the  conning  tower  or 
nose  of  the  craft  the  letter  U,  representing  the  word  ''under- 
seas," coupled  with  the  numeral  denoting  the  number  of  the 
boat.  Thus  those  who  sail  the  ocean  highways  came  to  recog- 
nize the  fact  that  a  conning  tower  or  low,  sharp-nosed  craft 
bearing  the  mystic  characters  U-9  was  a  German  underseas 
boat  No.  9. 

The  statistical  records  at  the  end  of  April,  1917,  showed 
that  nearly  3000  vessels  of  almost  5,000,000  gross  tons  were 
destroyed  by  the  U-boats  in  the  war.  More  than  half  of  the 
vessels  sunk  belonged  to  England.  Norway  and  France  were 
the  next  greatest  sufferers  from  the  submarine  warfare.  In 
one  week  after  Germany  announced  her  intention  to  give  no 
quarter,  but  to  sink  any  vessel  which  came  within  the  range  of 
the  U-boat  torpedoes,  the  toll  of  ships  lost  was  more  than 
400,000  tons. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war  the  submarine  was  to  all  in- 
tents and  purposes  a  novelty — a  boat  of  recognized  possibili- 
les,  but  existing  very  largely  in  the  experimental  stage.    Its 
use  was  very  largely  ignored  by  naval  men,  although  it  was 
conceded  that  when  properly  developed  it  would  prove  a  won^ 


142  THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE. 

derful  agency  of  destruction.  The  proud  conunanders  of  the 
great  battleships,  with  their  10, 12  and  14  inch  guns,  which  sent 
great  shells  miles  across  the  ocean,  looked  down  upon  the  little 
underseas  boat,  and  applied  to  it  the  sobriquet  of  *'tin  sardine/' 
But  the  "tin  sardine"  has  grown  up,  and  the  commander 
of  the  monster  war  vessel  is  at  the  mercy  of  the  little  craft 
which  he  ridiculed.  A  short  time  ago  Holland,  the  American 
inventor  of  the  modern  submarine,  died  of  a  broken  heart.  His 
type  was  necessarily  an  experimental  one.  He  built  five  boats 
before  he  was  able  to  sell  one  to  the  United  States  Governmentj 
and  this  latter  one,  after  being  bought  by  a  junk  dealer,  who 
intended  to  break  it  up  for  its  metals,  was  finally  rescued  from 
such  an  inglorious  end  by  the  city  of  New  York,  which  has 
placed  it  in  her  municipal  museum. 

PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  SUBMARINE. 

Germany  has  developed  the  highest  type  of  submarines, 
which  she  has  used  to  the  fullest  advantage.  The  principle  of 
the  submarine  is  that  of  a  floating  bottle.  An  empty  bottle,  as 
every  one  knows,  will  float  on  the  surface,  but  submerges  as 
soon  as  it  is  filled  with  water.  The  submarine  has,  as  part  of 
its  constructive  features,  a  number  of  compartments  which,  as 
they  are  fiilled  or  emptied  of  water,  enables  the  craft  to  sub- 
merge or  rise. 

At  the  bow  and  stern,  respectively,  there  are  two  Hori- 
zontal rudders,  and  as  these  are  manipulated  at  various  angles 
so  the  bow  points  either  upward  or  downward,  and  with  a 
steady  gliding  motion  the  submarine  slides  under  or  is  brought 
to  the  siu-f  ace. 

This,  in  brief,  is  the  story  of  the  submarine.  Its  history 
IS  another  matter ;  its  radius  of  action  and  results  achieved  one 
of  the  marvels  of  the  ages.  A  long-sheathed  body,  the  shape 
of  a  cigar  with  the  butt  end  to  the  fore,  the  inside  filled  with 
machinery  and  compactness  the  order  of  the  day,  might  be  re- 
garded as  a  fair  description  from  a  physical  standpoint.    It 


THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE.  143 

has  spread  terror  to  all  corners  of  the  earth,  and,  taken  in  pro- 
portion to  its  size  and  steaming  radius,  may  well  be  said  to  be 
the  superior  of  the  superdreadnought. 

The  manner  in  which  the  submarine  is  operated  is  difficult 
to  describe.  It  leads  a  sort  of  dual  existence.  When  cruising 
along  the  surface  "awash,"  it  is  propelled  like  a  motorboat,  the 
power  being  provided  by  a  gasoline  engine ;  but  when  it  dives 
or  submerges  it  is  operated  underwater  by  electric  motors,  and 
the  steering,  pumping,  handling,  loading  and  firing  of  the  tor- 
pedoes is  done  ]3neumatically  and  electrically.  The  interior  of 
the  submarine  is  a  marvel  of  mxcchanical  complexity  and  scien- 
tific detail.  There  are  gauges  to  show  the  water  pressure,  to 
indicate  the  speed,  to  show  the  depth;  sensitive  devices  by 
which  the  commander  can  tell  of  the  approach  of  vessels; 
wheels,  cranks,  levers  and  instruments  which  are  used  in  driv- 
ing and  controlling  this  almost  human  mechanical  agency  of 
the  seafighter. 

SUBMARINE  AN  ANOMALY  IN  WARFARE. 

The  submarine  is  the  sudden  and  amazing  problem  of  the 
naval  world.  While  naval  men  assert  with  confidence  that  it 
can  never  win  the  mastery  of  the  seas,  in  the  same  breath  they 
will  admit  that  it  may  easily  prevent  the  older  and  better 
known  types  of  ships  from  estabhshing  the  mastery  that  was 
once  theirs.    It  is  an  anomaly  in  warfare. 

Many  are  the  tales  of  horror  told  by  survivors  of  ships 
which  have  been  torpedoed  by  the  xmdersea  boats  of  the  Teu- 
tons. The  lordly  Lusitania,  on  board  of  which  were  some  of 
the  leading  lights  of  literature  and  some  of  the  world's  wealthy 
men,  was  sent  to  the  bottom  without  the  least  warning.  Neu- 
tral shipping  has  been  devastated,  and  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren have  been  murdered  by  the  hand  of  the  Kaiser,  as  exempli- 
fied in  the  lurking  submarine. 

One  of  the  dastardly  tragedies  of  the  war  was  the  sinking 
of  the  Lars  Kruse,  a  ship  flying  the  Danish  flag  and  which  had 


144  THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE.  / 

been  chartered  by  the  Belgian  Rehef  Commission,  This  was 
sunk  in  the  early  part  of  February,  1917,  and  the  crew  of  nine- 
teen men,  together  with  the  captain  and  other  officers,  with  the 
exception  of  the  first  mate  and  Axel  Moeller,  the  first  engineer, 
perished  in  the  bitter  cold  sea.  No  warning  was  given  by  the 
attacking  submarine;  indeed,  no  sight  of  it  was  had  by  the 
crew.  Delivering  its  torpedo  as  it  lay  submerged,  it  silently 
stole  away  into  the  night  after  the  murders  had  been  done. 

In  the  maritime  court  in  Copenhagen  Mr.  Moeller  tells  of 
the  sinking  of  the  ship.  Dressed  as  the  regulations  of  the  Ger- 
man autocrat  demanded,  with  the  balloon,  flag  and  bunting  dis- 
played at  each  of  the  mastheads,  together  with  other  marks  of 
identification,  the  ship  was  steaming  along  in  the  bright  moon- 
light when  she  was  struck,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the 
engineer. 

SHIP  NOT  STRUCK  BY  A  MINE. 

The  fact  that  the  ship  was  hit  near  the  fourth  hatch  alone 
combats  the  theory  that  she  was  struck  by  a  mine.  In  this  latter 
case  the  mine  would  have  struck  her  nearer  the  bow.  The  ship 
was  near  the  mouth  of  the  English  channel  when  hit.  In  an 
instant  she  started  to  settle,  and  the  crew  at  once  lowered  away 
the  single  lifeboat. 

The  boat  had  hardly  started  over  the  side,  however,  before 
the  ship  lurched,  and  with  a  mighty  heave  went  down  stern  first. 
She  seemed  to  turn  a  back  somersault,  according  to  the  engi- 
neer, and  because  of  the  fact  that  the  lifeboat  was  not  clear  it 
was  dragged  under.  The  men  succeeded  in  cutting  the  ropes, 
however,  and  the  lifeboat  came  to  the  surface,  although  bottom 
side  up.  Engineer  Moeller  was  struck  on  the  head  as  the  boat 
came  to  the  surface,  but,  although  he  was  momentarily  stunned, 
the  icy  water  quickly  revived  him. 

Striking  out  for  the  lifeboat,  the  engineer  soon  had  a  tight 
grip  on  her  side.  A  man  struggling  in  the  water  grasped  his 
iwrist,  but  by  a  quick  movement  he  wrenched  himself  free,  and 


THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE.  145 

tn^,  climbing  upon  the  boat,  reached  out  and  caught  the  man 
by  the  hand.  Then  began  a  slow  struggle  to  get  him  aboard, 
but  the  men  were  imequal  to  the  task,  and  the  man  in  the  water 
sank.  Part  of  the  skin  and  flesh  of  his  hand  remained  in  the 
fingers  of  Moeller,  showing  the  desperation  with  which  he  had 
clung  to  the  man's  hand. 

Three  other  men,  who  were  fast  becoming  exhausted,  were 
assisted  upon  the  boat,  where  they  lay  sprawled  across  its  bot- 
tom. Four  others  were  in  the  water,  making  a  total  of  seven 
who  were  alive. 

Water  and  air  were  freezing  cold,  and  Moeller,  who  was 
in  the  water,  together  with  three  others,  held  to  the  gunwales 
with  stiffened  fingers.  Within  the  hour  one  of  the  sailors  gave 
up  the  struggle,  and  with  a  farewell  to  the  others  slid  quietly 
into  the  depths. 

PASSENGERS'  AGONIZING  SUFFERINGS. 

Finally  Moeller  climbed  upon  the  upturned  boat,  where 
he  lay  listening  to  the  shrieks;  of  his  companions.  He  said  that 
their  cries  were  most  pitiful.  The  cabin  boy  was  the  next  vic- 
tim. He  cried  pitifully  for  a  time,  but  finally  became  silent 
and  shd  into  the  water.  Dne  after  another,  the  men  died  of 
exposure  and  slipped  into  the  peaceful  sea. 

After  a  time  the  only  persons  remaining,  besides  the  third 
mate,  were  the  two  who  had  thrown  themselves  across  the  bot- 
tom of  the  boat.  Finally  one  of  them  gave  up  the  struggle, 
and  the  other,  in  an  effort  to  combat  the  cold,  pulled  the  clothes 
from  his  dead  body  and  wrapped  them  about  himself.  The 
boat  settled  a  little,  and  fmally  both  were  corpses,  lying  with 
feet  and  Hands  dipping  into  the  sea.  The  engineer  said  that  he 
did  not  have  the  heart  to  push  their  bodies  into  the  water, 
although  he  knew  they  were  dead. 

Finally  the  third  mate  was  the  only  other  man  alive.  The 
clothes  of  the  engineer  were  frozen  fast  to  his  body,  and  he  felt 
that  he  was  dying  of  cold.    The  third  mate  started  to  get  a  sort 


146  THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE. 

of  bluish  black  from  the  cold,  and  with  a  gasping  cry  he  at- 
tempted to  sit  up  straight.  Then  reason  left  him,  and  /or  a 
couple  of  hours  he  shouted  and  shrieked,  and,  as  the  sun  began 
to  streak  the  sky  and  dawn  brought  shght  comfort,  the  dement- 
ed man  raved  and  swore. 

Then  a  flash  of  reason  seemed  to  return  to  him  and  he 
spoke  to  Moeller. 

"I'm  going/'  he  said.  "Give  my  love  to  my  wife." 
The  man  had  been  married  just  before  starting  on  this  ill- 
fated  voyage.  With  this  farewell  message  on  his  lips  he  died. 
When  Moeller  returned  to  his  home  he  found  that  it  was  impos- 
sible to  deliver  the  message  to  the  wife  of  the  dead  man,  because 
of  the  fact  that  worry  had  driven  her  insane. 

TROUSERS  USED  AS  SIGNAL: 
Shortly  after  the  death  of  his  companion  Moeller  saw 
the  smoke  of  a  steamer  on  the  horizon.  Summoning  all  his 
strength,  he  tore  the  trousers  from  the  limbs  of  one  of  the  dead 
men,  and,  using  them  as  a  means  of  signalmg,  swung  them 
about  his  head  to  attract  attention.  As  the  engineer  made 
every  effort  to  attract  the  attention  of  those  aboard  the  steam- 
ship, he  saw  a  sneaking  submarine  slowly  edging  toward  her. 
This  made  him  shout  all  the  louder,  thinking  thereby  to  warn 
the  captain  of  the  ship  of  his  danger.  His  efforts  were  vain, 
however,  and  in  a  short  time  the  ship  had  gone  to  the  bottom 
and  the  crew  was  adrift  in  the  lifeboats.  !Ih.e  sunken  ship 
proved  to  be  a  Russian  steamer. 

In  his  efforts  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  intended  vic- 
tim of  the  U-boat,  the  drifting  man  had  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  captain  of  the  submarine,  and  it  was  this  boat  to  which 
his  cold-stiffened  body  was  hauled  a  few  minutes  later.  It  was 
a  time  before  his  numb  body  could  be  thawed  out. 

Seeming  to  know  from  which  ship  he  had  been  cast  off, 
the  engineer  was  closely  questioned  by  the  captain  of  the  sub- 
marine.   As  the  captain  talked  he  made  motions,  as  though  to 


THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE.  U7 

shut  out  from  before  his  eyes  a  horrible  sight.  He  told  Moeller 
afterwards  that  the  most  horrible  sight  he  had  ever  seen  was  the 
overturned  boat  with  the  tv/o  corpses  laying  on  it,  and  the  lone 
man  signaling  for  help.  The  victim  was  black  from  cold,  and 
his  legs  were  rubbed  by  members  of  the  crew.  Port  wine  v/as 
given  him,  and  later  food  and  coffee. 

Then  the  captain  continued  his  questioning.  He  knew 
the  name  of  the  boat  on  which  MoeUer  had  been  engineer,  and 
from  his  intimate  knowledge  of  the  sinking  of  her,  the  engineer 
felt  sure  it  was  his  submarine  that  had  done  the  work. 

SUBMARINE  TOWS  RUSSIAN  SHIP. 

Turning  his  attention  to  the  lifeboats  of  the  Russian  ship 
which  he  had  just  torpedoed,  the  captain  of  the  submarine 
promised  to  tow  them  to  the  French  coast.  He  had  been  tow- 
ing them  but  two  hours,  however,  when  he  came  below  and  told 
Moeller  that  he  had  sighted  a  French  destroyer,  and  that  he 
would  have  to  make  his  escape.  He  gave  the  engineer  his 
choice  of  staying  on  the  submarine,  in  which!  case  it  would  be 
fourteen  days«bef ore  he  touched  port,  after  which  he  was  prom- 
ised his  freedom,  or  the  privilege  of  getting  aboard  one  of  the 
lifeboats,  and  taking  his  chances  of  rescue  by  the  destroyer. 

Electing  to  take  his  chances  in  the  lifeboat,  Moeller  was 
fitted  out  with  new  clothing,  the  outfit  being  topped  off  with  a 
fur-lined  overcoat,  lit  turned  out,  however,  that  the  captain 
had  taken  this  clothing  from  the  stores  of  the  Russian  steamer 
before  sinking  her,  and  the  engineer  learned  vv^hen  he  got  into 
the  lifeboat  that  he  was  wearing  the  greatcoat  of  one  of  the 
shivering  Russians, 

Just  before  submerging  the  U-boat  set  off  a  couple  of  red- 
light  bombs,  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  the  attention  of  the 
crew  of  the  destroyer,  and  submerged.  The  drifters  were 
picked  up  by  the  destroyer,  which  steamed  for  France.  The 
captain  of  the  U-boat  had  promised  Moeller  that  he  would  not 
attack  the  destroyer,  although  he  had  been  trailing  her  for  two 


148  THE  SLINKING  SUBMAEINE. 

weeks.    The  U-boat  was  sunk  before  she  reached  port,  and  all 
perished. 

An  American  importer  who,  because  of  his  German  name 
and  the  intimate  relations  he  enjoyed  with  certain  important 
men  in  Berlin,  had  been  taken  to  the  hearts  of  some  of  the 
leaders,  became  a  factor  in  pro-German  activities  in  Cuba.  He 
was  taken  into  the  confidences  of  many  pf  the  officials  and 
learned  the  plans  of  the  Tirpitz  group. 

Deciding  that  his  allegiance  was  American,  he  returned  to 
the  United  States.  In  his  possession  were  many  of  the  inner 
secrets  of  the  German  Government,  and  these  were  given  to 
the  officials  in  Washington.  His  information  with  reference  to 
the  submarine  has  been  of  great  value  to  the  government. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience  we  will  call  the  man  Johann 
Schmidt.    This  is  his  story  : 

THE  U-BOAT  TYPE  OF  SUBMERSIBLE. 

Germany's  most  successful  and  highly  developed  class  of 
submarine  has  been,  of  course,  the  U-boat  type  of  submersible. 
These  are  the  terrors  of  the  sea  which  have  succeeded  in  cross- 
ing the  Atlantic,  and  have  been  developed  both  as  the  fighting 
and  as  the  commercial  U-boat. 

Herr  Schmidt  reported  that  Germany  was  constructing 
submarines  25  per  cent  larger  than  anything  the  United  States 
had  ever  seen  or  heard  of.  His  information  was  to  the  effect 
that  Germany  had  a  building  capacity  for  ten  submarines  a 
week.  The  ability  to  produce  these  boats  with  such  rapidity  is 
due  to  the  process  of  standardization — ^the  practice  of  modern 
efficiency  which  has  made  it  possible  for  American  factories  to 
turn  out  such  big  quantities  of  automobiles  in  a  limited  period. 

All  parts  of  the  German  U-boats  are  made  in  standard 
sizes  and  from  the  same  original  pattern.  Consequently,  these 
parts  are  turned  out  by  machinery  in  replica,  and  the  building 
of  the  finished  boats  is  merely  a  matter  of  assembling  them  at 
points  to  which  the  various  parts  have  been  shipped.     The 


THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE.  149 

Diesel  oil  engine,  which  is  regarded  as  the  ideal  power-pro- 
ducing engine  for  submarines,  has  been  developed  to  its  highest 
state  of  efficiency  by  Germany,  and  is  made  at  the  famous 
Krupp  gun  works,  the  great  engine  works  in  Augsburg, 
Emden  and  Nuremburg,  and  other  less  well-known  places  in 
Germany. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  Germany  has  anywhere  from 
250  to  500  submarines,  and  it  is  said  that  the  aim  is  to  produce 
1000  of  these  craft,  to  absolutely  destroy  the  commerce  of  the 
seas  and  starve  into  submission  England  and  France. 

HOW  SUBMARINES  WORK. 

According  to  Herr  Schmidt,  the  submarines  work  in 
groups  of  four.  Because  of  the  limited  capacity  of  the  boats 
for  carrying  provisions,  supplies  and  fuel,  it  is  necessary  for 
them  to  have  supply  bases,  to  which  they  can  return  and  secure 
torpedoes.  In  operation  each  group  consists  of  four  subma- 
rines, traveling  along  in  a  diamond-shaped  formation,  one  in 
front,  one  on  either  flank  and  one  in  rear.  Eight  miles  sepa- 
rate the  boats.  The  leading  submarine  carries  the  extra  gaso- 
line and  supplies  and  acts  as  a  scoutship;  she  sights  a  vessel, 
reports  its  speed  and  direction  and  then  submerges^=-her  task 
is  done. 

The  two  torpedo  carriers  on  ieither  Hank  immediately 
change  their  courses  so  as  to  converge  on  the  prey,  and  they 
arrive  one  on  either  side  of  her — ^they  get  her  in  between  them. 
The  boat  in  the  rear  keeps  them  informed  as  to  the  doomed 
ship's  progress,  and  submerges  at  the  last  moment.  She  car- 
ries the  extra  crews  for  the  fighting  pair.  The  U-boats  are 
fau4y  well  protected  against  the  onslaught  of  the  light  torpedo- 
boat  destroyers  and  chasers,  because  the  decks  are  protected  by 
several  feet  of  water  at  almost  all  times,  while  the  commanding 
tower  is  covered  with  from  two  to  three  inches  of  the  best  steel 
armor  plate. 

It  is  related  that  at  the  outset  of  the  U-boat  menace,  Eng- 


150  THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE. 

land  ordered  its  commaRding  officers  to  ram  the  U-boats  on 
sight.  The  length  to  which  the  Germans  will  go  in  an  effort  to 
win  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that,  in  consequence  of  this  order, 
a  Von  Tirpitz  council  presented  this  answer:  Attacking  sub- 
marines were  equipped  with  explosive  mines  containing  300  to 
400  pounds  of  nitroglycerin  or  guncotton.  To  the  top  of  this 
mine  was  fastened  a  fake  periscope.  This  devilish  device  was 
attached  to  the  submarine  by  a  light  cable,  and  towed  along 
the  surface  of  the  water  1000  feet  or  more  behind  the  subma- 
rine. The  result  that  would  follow  any  attempt  on  the  part  of 
a  commander  to  run  down  one  of  these  decoys  is  readily 
imagined. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  A  PERISCOPE. 

The  periscope  is  distinctly  a  submarine  device  which  is 
fvorthy  of  brief  description.  It  is,  in  effect,  a  long  tube,  with 
an  elbow  joint  at  the  top  and  a  similar  one  at  the  bottom.  At 
the  elbow  joints  at  both  ends  are  arranged  reflectors.  The  re- 
flector in  the  upper  end  catches  the  object  which  comes  within 
the  range  of  vision,  and  reflects  the  image  down  the  tube  to  the 
mirror  at  the  lower  elbow,  where  the  pilot  sees  it.  The  prin- 
ciple of  the  periscope  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  * 'busybody," 
familiar  to  householders,  and  which  is  placed  on  the  sill  of  an 
upper  window,  so  that  a  person  inside  the  house  may  see  who 
is  at  the  front  door. 

The  Germans  have  recently  devised  a  new  form  of  peri- 
scope, designed  to  make  the  device  invisible  to  the  lookout  of 
approaching  boats.  This  device  consists  of  two  mirrors,  put 
together  like  a  "Y"  lying  on  its  side,  the  v/ide  part  in  front. 
These  skim  through  the  waves  and  converge  the  image  upon 
the  low  periscope's  lens,  v/hich  shoots  the  light  down  the  tube 
to  the  receiving  apparatus  below.  When  looked  at  from  a  dis- 
tance the  mirrors  reflect  the  surface  of  the  sea,  so  that  a  look- 
out sees  nothing  but  the  waves  as  they  are  reflected  in  the 
mirror* 


THE  SLINKING  SUBMAEINR  151 

The  Germans  use  the  bottom  of  the  sea  as  regular  *land" 
for  their  supply  bases^  and  when  the  submarines  go  to  the  sur- 
face it  is  precisely  like  an  aeroplane  mounting  the  air.  The 
submarine  fleet  boasts  also  of  "mother  boats."  They  lie  on  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean,  in  designated  places,  and  rise  at  night  to 
hand  out  their  supplies.  Crews  are  changed  and  tired  men  go 
back  to  the  bottom  to  rest  up,  while  fresher  comrades  take  their 
j)laces. 

So,  too,  the  submarine,  with  its  ability  to  rest  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sea,  has  become  an  efficient  boat  for  mine  laying. 
The  mine  layers  work  from  the  undersea  boats  without  fear  of 
disturbance,  the  divers  walking  out  from  the  submarines  to  the 
floor  of  the  sea  without  being  seen  or  ^vithout  ever  coming  to 
the  surface. 

TALES  OF  REMARKABLE  EXPLOITS. 

American  citizens  landed  from  vessels  sunk  by  German 
submarines  tell  remarkable  tales  of  the  strenuous  exploits  of 
the  U-boats.  In  one  case  three  undersea  boats  appeared  simul- 
taneously alongside  the  ship,  one  being  a  submarine  cruiser, 
800  feet  long,  and  the  others  old-fashioned  submarines,  with  a 
length  of  about  120  feet. 

In  another  case  a  German  submarine  wore  an  elaborate 
disguise  of  a  fishing  boat.  This  subm^arine  carried  a  gun  v/hich 
had  a  range  of  nearly  five  miles. 

In  at  least  two  cases  the  crews  of  vessels  sunk  by  sub- 
marines were  rescued  from  open  boats  hy  passing  ships,  only 
to  suft'er  a  repetition  of  disaster  when  the  ship  on  which  they 
had  taken  refuge  fell  prey  to  an  underwater  boat. 

A  seaman  from  Pensacola,  who  was  a  member  of  the  crew 
of  a  Swedish  sailing  vessel,  said : 

*'We  were  almost  within  sight  of  land  late  in  the  after- 
noon when  we  observed  a  Norwegian  sailing  vessel  in  an  en- 
counter with  a  submarine  eight  miles  away.  Apprehending 
that  our  turn  would  come  next,  we  prepared  a  lifeboat.    A 


152  THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE. 

300-foot  submarine  came  up  to  us  in  due  course  and  fired  three 
warning  shots  from  its  heavy  gun. 

"We  pulled  our  boat  over  to  the  lifeboat  from  the  'Nor- 
wegian ship  previously  sunk,  and  a  dozen  hom*s  later  were 
picked  up  by  a  British  steamer.  We  had  only  a  brief  stay  on 
the  British  boat,  as  she  was  torpedoed  the  same  morning. 
After  a  few  hours  in  the  boats  we  were  foimd  by  a  British 
patrol  and  landed." 

A  Baltimore  seaman  from  a  Danish  sailing  vessel  said : 
THE  SHIP  ABANDONED. 

"We  abandoned  ship  in  response  to  three  shots  from  a 
submarine.  Thereupon  the  submarine  fired  twenty-two  shots 
into  the  hull  of  the  ship,  sinking  her.  We  tried  to  speak  with 
the  submarine  commander,  but  he  told  us  he  was  in  a  hiu-ry,  as 
he  had  to  attend  to  a  Norwegian  bark  which  was  waiting  a 
short  distance  off. 

^'We  puUed  for  the  nearest  land,  and  all  our  twenty-five 
men  got  ashore  safe,  although  both  lifeboats;  were  badly 
smashed  up  in  the  surf  as  we  were  beaching  them.'* 

A  Philadelphian  described  the  manner  in  iwhich  his 
steamer  escaped  being  sunk. 

"We  were  attacked  by  a  submarine  disguised  as  a  fishing 
vessel,"  he  said.  "She  opened  fire  on  us  at  five  miles,  sending 
fifteen  shots  at  us,  and  smashing  om*  wireless.  She  pursued  us 
for  an  hour.  We  did  not  use  our  gun.  Finally  a  British  patrol 
boat  appeared.  The  submarine  submerged,  disguise  and  all, 
presenting  a  ludicrous  sight  as  the  carefully  prepared  equip- 
ment simulating  a  fishing  boat  sank  beneath  the  waves." 

The  captain  of  an  American  sailing  ship  which  was  sunk 
said: 

"Submarines  are  lying  along  the  sea  lanes  m  regular 
nests.  They  keep  well  under  the  water  most  of  the  time,  com- 
ing up  now  and  then  for  periscopic  observations,  or  on  hear- 
ing the  approach  of  merchant  craft,  which  often  can  be  iden- 


THE  SLINKING  SUBMARINE.  153 

tified  readily  by  the  sound  of  the  engines.  By  thus  conserving 
fuel  the  submarines  are  able  to  remain  away  from  their  base  a 
long  time,  and  also  they  find  means  of  renewing  their  stores 
from  ships  which  they  sink. 

"The  U-boat  which  sank  us  had  been  out  for  six  weeks. 
She  had  one  British  captain  on  board.  She  renewed  all  her 
supplies  from  our  boat  and  took  all  the  nautical  instruments. 
The  submarine  gave  us  a  sharp  signal  to  halt,  with  a  shell  from 
a  distance  of  two  miles.  It  was  good  marksmanship.  The 
shot  hit  the  ship  squarely,  but  caused  no  casualties.  We 
stopped  and  took  to  the  boats.  The  submarine  came  up  in 
leisurely  fashion,  sank  the  ship  with  bombs  and  passed  the  time 
of  day  with  our  boats.  She  had  a  crew  of  thirty-seven,  and 
was  250  feet  long. 

"We  were  picked  up  by  a  Norwegian  sailing  vessel,  on 
which  we  spent  six  days.  She  was  then  attacked  by  a  120-foot 
submarine.  We  all  took  to  the  Norwegian's  boats.  The  sub- 
marine commander  declined  to  look  at  the  Norwegian  cap- 
tain's papers.  We  had  another  twenty-four  hours  in  open 
boats,  and  then  were  picked  up  by  a  British  patrol  and 
landed*" 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
THWARTING  THE  U-BOAT. 

Nets  to  Entangle  the  Sea  Sharks  of  War  —  "  Chasers  "  or  "  Skimming- 
dish"  Boats — "Blimps"  and  Seaplanes — Hunting  the  Submarine  with 
"  Lance,"  Bomb  and  Gun — ^A  Sailor's  Description. 

THE  advantage  which  Germany  gained  by  the  development 
of  what  has  been  termed  the  supersubmarine  placed  the 
other  nations  where  it  became  absolutely  necessary  for 
them  to  concentrate  then*  energies  in  an  effort  to  counteract 
the  devastation  which  the  U-boats  brought  upon  the  seas. 
England  tried  first  to  protect  the  English  chamiel  and  many 
of  its  ports  with  mines,  floating  bombs  and  submarine  nets,  and 
while  the  latter  served  as  barriers  which  prevented  the  sub- 
marines penetrating  into  some  of  the  important  waters  and 
harbors,  they  could  act  merely  in  a  protective  sense. 

The  submarine  net  is  a  specially  devised  net  with  heavy 
iron  or  wire  meshes,  similar  to  a  fishing  net.  These  nets — 
miles  in  length — were  born  of  the  nets  originally  devised  to 
sweep  harbors  clear  of  mines.  They  are  carried  between  two 
boats  described  as  trawlers,  which  are  a  form  of  sea-going  tug 
with  powerful  engines,  that  can  draw  a  heavy  load.  A  heavy 
cable  runs  from  trawler  to  trawler,  and  from  this  the  chain  net 
is  suspended  in  the  water.  It  is  heavily  weighted  at  the  bot- 
tom so  as  to  hold  it  in  a  perpendicular  position.  The  trawlers 
steaming  along,  side  by  side,  sweej)  up  with  the  net  anything 
which  may  be  placed  in  the  water  for  the  purpose  of  blowing 
up  or  injuring  vessels. 

The  submarine  nets  in  some  places  have  been  anchored  to 
form  a  regular  barrier  against  the  passage  of  submarine  boats, 
and  in  this  way  were  effective,  but  their  use  could  in  no  way  re- 
strict the  underseas  boats  in  their  work  upon  the  open  seas. 

The  most  effective  plan  of  overcoming  the  dire  conse- 
quences of  the  U-boat  warfare  was  found,  therefore,  to  lie  in 

154 


THWAETING  THE  U-BOAT.  155 

the  use  of  submarine  chasers  and  airships,  the  two  operating 
together  in  conjunction  with  the  battleships,  cruisers  and  tor- 
pedo boat  destroyers. 

The  submarine  chaser  is  a  light-draught,  high-powered, 
skimming-dish  type  of  husky  motorboat,  moimting  rapid-fire, 
3  or  4-inch  guns,  iln  order  to  prove  effective  against  the  sub- 
marine it  is  necessary  to  have  many  of  these  boats,  and  it  is  a 
matter  of  particular  interest  that  the  marvelous  resources  of 
the  United  States  at  the  time  of  her  entrance  into  the  war  en- 
abled her  to  immediately  begin  a  campaign  for  the  construction 
of  chasers,  v/hich  v/ould  be  able  to  guard  the  seas  in  the  chan- 
nels of  traffic  and  along  the  ports  into  which  the  submarine 
might  attempt  to  sneak. 

NO  EXPERT  NAVAL,  KNOWLEDGE  REQUIRED. 

The  operation  of  the  chaser  does  not  require  the  degree  of 
technical  skill  and  knowledge  of  naval  strategy  required  in  the 
handling  of  ships  of  the  naval  type.  A  fleet  of  chasers  is 
manned  largely  by  naval  reserves,  who  have  a  certain  amount  of 
training,  but  who  are  neither  navigators  nor  experts  in  naval 
affairs.  The  operations  are,  however,  directed  by  the  naval 
authorities. 

The  submarine  chaser  is  effective  because  it  draws  very 
little  water,  has  high  speed,  can  be  quicldy  tm^ned  and  diverted 
from  its  course  and  does  not  present  any  great  depth  of  hull  at 
which  the  submarine  can  fire  a  torpedo.  It  would  be  possible 
for  a  torpedo  to  pass  xmder  a  chaser  without  hitting  it — if  the 
submarine  cared  to  waste  such  an  expensive  weapon  on  so  small 
an  adversary.  When  the  submarine  attempts  to  come  to  the 
surface  and  use  the  rapid-fire  gun  with  which  she  is  armed  she 
is  at  a  disadvantage,  because  it  takes  her  several  minutes  to 
emerge.  Additional  time  is  required  to  swing  the  gun  up 
through  its  automatic  hatch  while  the  men  scramble  to  the  deck 
to  man  it. 

The  chaser,  with  a  speed  of  approxim^ately  35  to  40  miles 


156  THWARTING  THE  U-BOAT. 

an  hour,  will  travel  somewhere  between  a  mile  and  a  Half  to 
two  miles  in  this  period.  Its  gun  has  been  ready  from  the  start, 
and  the  chaser  has  had  half  a  dozen  shots  or  so  with  only  a 
single  hit  needed  to  put  the  submarine  out  of  commission.  Even 
if  the  submarine  is  at  the  surface  and  has  her  gun  mounted 
ready  for  action,  she  is  at  a  disadvantage  with  the  chaser.  The 
chaser,  taking  advantage  of  her  speed  and  small  size,  goes 
skimming  across  the  water  at  the  rate  of  40  miles  an  hour,  and 
it  takes  a  mighty  fine  gunner  to  be  able  to  hit  a  small  craft,  go- 
ing in  a  zigzag  course  over  the  water  at  such  speed. 

The  chaser  may  continue  to  circle  the  submarine  awaiting 
her  opportunity  which  will  of  necessity  come  when  the  U-boat 
attempts  to  submerge.  The  submarine  must  go  through  the 
regular  form  of  running  back  her  gim,  and  battening  down  the 
water-tight  hatches,  before  she  can  submerge,  and  the  latter 
process  again  takes  several  minutes.  Therefore  while  the  sub- 
marine is  preparing  to  dip,  the  chaser  can  run  upon  her  and  let 
loose  the  fire  from  its  rapid-fire  gun. 

A  POOR  SURFACE  FIGHTER. 

The  submarine,  by  very  virtue  of  the  qualities  which  make 
it  a  good  submarine,  is  a  poor  boat  for  surface  fighting. 
It  can  carry  no  very  heavy  armament,  and  it  is  not  heavily  arm- 
ored. The  problem  of  stowing  away  aU  the  heavy  machinery, 
supplies,  torpedoes  and  devices  necessary  for  her  operations 
and  maneuvering  has  presented  about  all  the  difficulties  the 
constructors  have  been  able  to  handle.  The  highest  speed  of 
the  submarine  is  not  in  execess  of  20  miles  an  hour.  The  sub- 
marine must  be  light  and  easy  to  handle.  It  gains  in  steadi- 
ness and  certainty  of  operation  with  increased  size,  but  it  loses 
in  capacity  for  quick  and  delicate  maneuvering. 

In  addition  the  submarine  has  what  is  termed  a  strategic 
vulnerability.  A  shot  which  might  mean  nothing  more  serious 
than  a  hole  in  the  side  to  a  surface  boat  would  end  the  sub- 


THWARTING  THE  U-BOAT.  157 

marine's  usefulness  for  underseas  work  and  convert  her  into  a 
helpless  hulk  of  surface  craft. 

The  submarine  is  an  easy  quarry  for  a  chaser,  for  even 
when  submerged  and  moving  along,  the  U-boat  creates  a  dis- 
tinct wave  on  the  surface  of  the  water  which  can  be  followed  by 
the  chaser.  The  little  boats  are  just  what  their  name  implies — 
chasers — and  besides  having  the  qualities  already  described 
they  may  conceal  themselves  behind  large  steamers,  and  when 
the  submarine  in  preparing  to  launch  a  torpedo  makes  its  pres- 
ence known  the  chaser  may  speed  from  its  hiding  place  and 
drive  the  underseas  craft  away,  even  if  it  does  not  succeed  in 
injuring  it. 

OPERATING  IN  CONNECTION  W^ITH  AN  AEROPLANE. 

The  chasers  also  have  a  special  facility  of  operation  in  con- 
nection with  the  aeroplane  or  seaplane,  principally  because  of 
their  high  speed;  and  next  to  the  chaser  the  aeroplane  is  one  of 
the  submarine's  worst  enemies.  Used  in  conjunction  with  the 
regular  torpedo  boat  destroyers  of  the  navy,  the  chaser  and  the 
aeroplane  promise  in  future  wars  to  minimize  the  effectiveness 
of  the  underseas  craft.  This  is  proven  by  the  fact  that  imme- 
diately after  the  United  States  naval  forces  joined  those  of  the 
Allies  in  European  waters,  the  disasters  resultant  upon  sub- 
marine attacks  were  greatly  reduced.  The  speedy  destroyers, 
while  not  actually  sinking  many  submarines,  by  their  vigilance 
prevented  the  submarine  from  operating. 

Large  types  of  the  chasers  ordered  in  this  country  by  the 
Russian  Government  are  72  feet  long  by  11  feet  3  inches  wide 
and  draw  3  feet  3  inches  of  water.  Each  boat  carries  three  of 
the  '8-cylinder  6%x7%  Duesenberg,  350  to  400  horsepower 
motors.  The  boats  carry  an  18-inch  torpedo  tube  amidships 
and  a  47-millimetre  rapid-fire  gun  on  the  forward  deck.  They 
are  controlled  from  the  bridge  deck  with  a  sheltered  cabin  for 
the  quartermaster,  with  controls  from  either  the  shelter  or 


158  THWAETING  THE  U-BOAT. 

bridge  deck.  They  have  a  guaranteed  speed  of  twenty-eight 
knots. 

Deck  arrangements  consist  of  the  following:  A  hatch  to 
the  fo'castle,  followed  by  the  emplacement  for  the  rapid-fire 
gun.  Following  this  is  the  steering  shelter  containing  dupli- 
cate controls,  &c,,  for  the  engine  room  and  for  the  steering. 
IniMiediately  aft  of  the  steering  shelter  is  the  bridge  deck,  lo- 
cated on  top  of  the  engine  room  trunk  house.  The  entire  after 
half  of  the  vessel  is  a  clear  sweep  of  deck  with  the  exception  of 
a  booby  hatch  to  crews'  quarters  well  aft. 

The  boats  are  arranged  for  wireless  with  foremast  and 

jigger  mast.    Rail  stanchions  in  the  way  of  the  torpedo  tube 

are  hinged  down,  giving  clear  sweep  to  the  tube  for  firing  pm-- 

poses, 

PROVISION  FOR  OFFICERS  AND  CREW. 

Below  decks  ample  space  has  been  provided  for  the  crew 
and  officers.  The  forepeak  is  arranged  for  chain  lockers  and 
bosun's  gear  lockers^  followed  by  ship's  galley,  which  has  two 
pipe  berths.  Next  to  the  galley  is  located  the  officers'  cabin 
and  wireless  room,  which  is  entered  by  a  hatch  from  the  steer- 
ing shelter.  This  cabin  accommodates  two  officers  and  includes 
lavatory,  officers'  desks,  wireless  desk  and  folding  mess  table. 

Next  aft  is  the  machinery  space,  in  which  are  located  the 
three  eight  cylinder  Duesenberg  motors,  a  three  k.  v/.  universal 
lighting  set,  the  necessary  oil  tanks,  batteries  and  a  work  bench. 
The  next  compartment  contains  fuel  tanks,  with  1300  gallons 
capacity.  Aft  of  this  compartment  is  located  the  crew's  quar- 
ters, berthing  eight  men,  with  lavatory  attached.  The  hull  is 
divided  into  six  watertight  compartments  by  steel  bulkheads. 

The  hull  is  of  wooden  construction,  as  developed  for  this 
service  by  the  builders. 

The  72-footers  develop  a  speed  of  twenty-eight  knots  and 
have  a  cruising  radius  exceeding  1200  miles.  The  design  of 
the  hull  is  the  concave  botlom,  square  bilge  type,  developed  for 
tliis  particular  service.     It  furnishes  a  steady  gun  platform. 


THWARTING  THE  U-BOAT.  159 

which,  with  the  necessary  speed,  is  the  most  vital  feature  of  a 
submarine  chaser. 

The  demand  for  speed  and  stabihty  was  borne  out  by  the 
experience  of  the  Russian  and  Italian  navies  in  their  active 
work  and  no  consideration  at  aU  is  given  propositions  from 
these  two  countries  which  do  not  range  well  about  twenty-five 
knots. 

Exceptional  success  was  attained  by  the  Russian  Black  Sea 
and  by  the  Itahan  high  speed  fleets  in  actual  use  and  their  de- 
mand for  exceptional  speed  was  based  on  experience. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  Russian  government  was 
successful  in  patroling  its  shores  and  in  protecting  its  harbors 
and  shipping.  The  Itahan  government  also  was  exceptionally 
successful  in  maintaining  its  mercantile  fleet  in  comparative 
safety  and  in  protecting  its  harbors  against  the  offensive  work 
of  enemy  submarines.  The  entire  Italian  fleet  of  submarine 
chasers  consists  of  high  speed,  high  powered  motor  patrol  boats, 
most  of  which  were  equipped  with  American  made  motors. 

CATALOGUED  AS  "  PATROL  BOATS." 
In  a  general  way  the  ''chasers"  are  catalogued  in  naval 
circles  as  "patrol  boats."  England  has  thousands  of  them, 
ranging  from  motorboats  to  naval  auxiliaries,  raking  the  Eng- 
lish Channel,  the  North  Sea  and  the  waters  all  about  the  Brit- 
ish Isles.  iAs  a  rule  the  boats  work  in  groups  of  five  or  six, 
one  boat  serving  as  a  flagship — and  often  there  is  a  ''blimp" 
attached  to  the  fleet.  The  armament  of  these  small  vessels  is 
distinctive.  Each  carries,  besides  a  deck  gun,  a  "depth 
charge,"  half  a  dozen  lance  bombs  and  arms  for  each  member 
of  the  crcAV.  The  deck  gun  fires  a  shell  that  weighs  about 
thirteen  pounds. 

The  "depth  charge"  is  a  submarine  bomb,  so  constructed 
that  it  is  discharged  at  any  determined  depth  of  water  when 
thrown  overboard.  If  the  water  is  100  feet  deep  the  bomb 
will  explode  at  that  depth.     The  bombs  are  used  to  drop  in 


160  THWARTING  THE  U-BOAT. 

places  where  the  submarine  has  been  located  or  is  expected  of 
lurking  in  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  While  the  exploding  bomb 
may  not  strike  the  imderseas  boat  it  vnll  create  havoc  on  board 
the  underwater  craft  if  discharged  in  close  proximity,  the  extra 
iwater  pressure  exerted  causing  disarrangement  of  the  delicate 
mechanism,  if  not  rendering  the  boat  unfit  for  service. 

Some  of  the  patrol  boats  of  the  English  have  been  armed 
with  'lance  bombs."  These  are  bombs  of  highly  explosive  char- 
acter which  are  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  long  pole  or  staff. 
They  are  used  just  as  a  harpoon  is  used  when  by  chance  a  sub- 
marine may  emerge  from  the  water  in  too  close  proximity  to 
the  chaser.  It  is  not  of  record  that  any  U-boats  have  been  sunk 
with  these  strange  javelins,  but  official  reports  show  that  the 
boats  are  armed  with  them  for  emergencies. 

CHASER  TROUBLES  THE  SUBMARINE. 

What  with  dragging  bombs  through  the  water,  and  set- 
ting traps  and  nests  for  the  submarines,  the  chasers  make  great 
trouble  for  the  underseas  craft,  but  the  ingenious  Germans  are 
constantly  on  the  alert,  and  it  has  been  proved  that  in  one  or 
two  instances  at  least  the  submarines  cut  their  way  through 
the  heavy  chain  nets  which  were  set  to  catch  them  near  Havre. 
It  was  said  that  the  submarine  was  provided  with  steel  knives 
or  wire  cutters,  and  shears  operated  by  electricity  or  pneumatic 
pressure,  which  enabled  the  boat  to  cut  its  way  through  the  bar- 
rier of  chains  and  wires. 

As  a  means  of  visualizing  the  operations  of  the  ^'chaser" 
and  giving  some  idea  of  the  excitement  which  attends  the  at- 
tempt to  run  down  the  under-seas  craft,  the  following  descrip- 
tion by  an  English  sailor  is  interesting.  The  chase  occurred 
off  the  Isle  of  Wight: 

"Offshore  a  short  distance  was  a  patrol  boat  lying  very 
lot^  and  flying  distress  signals.  We  had  run  over  to  her  and 
learned  that  about  an  hour  before  the  periscope  of  a  submarine 
had  been  stuck  up  not  far  from  her,  then  the  craft  had  sub- 


THWARTING  THE  U-BOAT.  16i 

merged,  appeared  again  about  a  mile  away,  and  fired  four 
shots,  which  let  in  enough  water  slowly  to  sink  the  patrol, 
which  before  the  war  had  been  nothing  but  a  dirty  little  trawler. 

"Finding  the  crew  of  the  patrol  could  take  care  of  them- 
selves in  their  small  boats  and  learning  that  the  submarine  had 
run  over  to  the  westward,  where  we  knew  chain  net  traps  to  be 
laid,  we  circled  in  that  direction, 

"Our  powerful  motors  thrummed  evenly.     The  water 
seemed  to  part  ahead  of  us,  and  the  gunners  squinted  along  the 
surface,  looking  for  the  glimpse  of  a  periscope  or  the  first  sign 
of  the  hull  of  the  U-boat  if  she  should  be  proceeding  awash. 
CREW  THRILLED  WITH  JOY. 

"Suddenly,  off  to  the  west,  we  made  out  her  periscope. 
Intense  joy  thriUed  our  little  crew.  She  was  inshore  from  us. 
She  was  between  our  circular  course  and  the  chain  nets — in  the 
trap.  The  periscope  we  had  seen  might  be  a  dummy,  for  a 
submarine  frequently  casts  loose  a  phoney  periscope  to  draw 
fire,  but,  at  any  rate,  she  must  have  been  between  us  and  the 
nets  if  she  cut  it  loose. 

"Presently,  probably  after  a  look  around,  the  periscope 
suddenly  disappeared,  and  we  knew  it  was  a  real  one  with  a 
German  U-boat  on  the  end  of  it.  Like  a  flock  of  falcons  we 
were  swooping  down  on  the  prey. 

"Abruptly  the  lead  boat  comes  to  a  dead  stop  and  lists 
heavily  to  starboard.  Evidently  something  is  wrong.  We  see 
men  crawl  out  over  the  stern  and  fish  around  with  boat  hooks 
and  poles.  Cold  as  it  is,  one  man  goes  overboard  and  remains 
under  water  so  long  we  could  not  beheve  he  would  come  up 
alive.    The  boat  had  fouled  the  chain  nets. 

"Circling  round  in  an  ever  smaller  radius,  we  search  the 
water  for  a  periscope,  a  shadow,  or  the  conventional  "streak 
of  dirty  grease'  or  'line  of  bubbles.' 

"All  of  us  have  towing  torpedoes  out.  These  are  bombs 
on  long  cables  which  are  towed  astern  and  sink  to  a  certain 


162  THWAETING  THE  U-BOAT. 

specified  depth.  If  the  cable  fouls  anything  at  all,  as  the  boat 
goes  ahead,  the  bomb  pulls  up  to  it,  and,  when  it  bumps,  it 
explodes. 

"We  are  in  line.  Suddenly  there  is  a  crash  and  a  roar 
just  ahead  of  us.  I  am  thrown  off  my  feet.  Barrels  of  water 
splash  down  into  our  cockpit  and  roll  off  the  decks.  The  bow 
lifts  itself  clean  for  a  second.  II  think  that  the  submarine  has 
blown  us  up.    Perhaps  I  am  dead  already. 

"Then  we  settle  down  again,  and  except  for  a  scared  look 
on  the  faces  of  a  couple  of  men  and  rather  nervous,  forced  jests 
on  the  lips  of  others,  we  are  plowing  ahead  just  as  before. 

"Nothing  has  happened  except  the  towing  torpedo  of  the 
boat  in  front  of  us  in  the  line  fouled  a  submerged  spar,  or  a  bit 
of  wreckage,  and  exploded  right  under  our  bow.  Mf  we  had 
been  a  few  yards  closer  we  would  never  have  been  there  any 

more.' 

FOULS  A  SUBMERGED  SPAR. 

"As  we  realized  what  had  happened,  our  tongues  were 
loosened,  and,  if  the  crew  of  the  boat  ahead  could  have  heard 
what  we  said  about  them,  we  would  have  lost  their  friendship 
most  assuredly. 

"Way  inshore,  after  a  circling  chase  of  perhaps  twenty 
minutes,  the  submarine  came  up.  She  was  in  such  shallow 
water  that  she  probably  was  having  trouble  in  operating  sub- 
merged.   She  was  gone  then. 

"What  followed  was  very  business-like.  It  illustrates  the 
attitude  the  British  have  come  to  take  toward  the  submarines 
because  of  their  flagrant  violations  of  every  form  of  inter- 
national law  and  decency.  It  is  the  attitude  which  any  country, 
obliged  to  fight  against  them,  will  assume.  To  the  British 
mind,  submarines  must  be  exterminated,  just  as  one  would  ex- 
terminate a  nest  of  poisonous  vipers,  or  a  nest  of  hornets.  Peo- 
ple ask  me  how  many  submarines  are  being  captured  now. 
V'ery  few!    Many  are  destroyed,  but  few  captured. 

"No  sooner  did  the  hull  of  the  submarine  show  itself  than 


THWARTING  THE  U-BOAT.  163 

we  began  to  hammer  her  with  our  three-inch  guns.  She  opened 
fire,  but  her  shots  went  wild,  and,  in  a  few  seconds,  she  dis- 
appeared. 

"As  fast  as  we  could,  we  ran  over  to  where  she  had  gone 
down.  If  the  principles  which  obtain  on  land,  in  the  air  or  in 
the  navy  at  large,  existed  in  submarine  warfare,  we  would  have 
gone  over  to  see  if  we  could  rescue  any  of  the  wounded,  but  it 
was  a  U-boat  and  we  simply  made  sure  that  there  was  nothing 
left  of  the  craft. 

"About  where  she  went  down,  a  quantity  of  gas  and  air 
bubbles  were  rising,  and  the  dirty  patch  of  oil  was  once  more 
in  evidence.  That  was  a  pretty  certain  sign  the  career  of  one 
U-boat  was  at  an  end,  for  the  sea  must  have  been  pouring  into 
her,  and  even  though  all  her  crew  did  not  drown,  once  the  salt 
water  reached  the  storage  batteries,  the  chloride  would  do  the 
work. 

WERE  TAKING  NO  CHANCES. 

"But  we  are  taking  no  chances.  We  circle  round  and 
round  the  spot  and  drop  depth  bombs— deadly  machines. 
These  are  powerful  explosives  which  are  set  so  they  will  de- 
tonate at  a  certain  depth.  We  first  sounded  the  bottom  and 
then  set  our  bombs  for  ten  fathoms.  Suddenly  I  hear  a  cry 
from  the  boat  behind  us.  One  of  the  crew  reaches  out,  grabs 
the  collar  of  a  man  who  has  just  dropped  a  depth  bomb  over 
the  stern  and  yanks  him  unceremoniously  into  the  cockpit.  At 
a  glance  I  see  what  has  happened. 

"The  engineer  has  stalled  his  motor— just  as  the  bomb 
was  let  go.  It  sinks  slowly,  and  there  is  a  slight  momentum 
left  in  the  submarine-chaser.  We  hold  our  breath  and  watch 
in  suspense,  expecting  any  second  to  see  our  comrades  hurled 
into  the  air  among  a  mushroom  of  water  and  splinters. 

"There  is  no  way  to  help  them.  Suddenly  there  is  a  muf- 
fled roar,  a  column  of  water  rises  to  what  seems  a  hundred  feet, 
and  falls  back,  drenching  every  one  who  is  near  it.    But  ou^ 


164  THWARTING  THE  U-BOAT. 

comrades  are  unhurt.  The  momentum  of  their  boat  has  car- 
ried them  just  far  enough  to  save  them  from  being  blown  to 
atoms.  That  is  the  second  narrow  escape  for  our  little  squad- 
ron in  this  chase  after  a  single  submarine. 

"But  our  work  is  done.  There  is  no  doubt  now  about  the 
fate  of  the  U-boat.  It  is  not  necessary  for  one  of  the  depth 
bombs  actually  to  come  in  contact  with  the  submerged  craft 
to  destroy  it.  When  under  water,  a  submarine's  rigidity  is  mul- 
tiplied. Its  elasticity  is  next  to  nothing.  An  explosion  as 
powerful  as  that  of  a  depth  bomb  near  it,  is  almost  certain  to 
cripple  it  if  not  destroy  it.  It  is  the  same  principle  as  that 
which  kills  fish  in  a  pond  when  dynamite  is  exploded  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  water.  The  shock  is  sufficient  to  kill  the  men 
in  the  U-boat,  and  so  we  glide  along  homeward,  secure  in  the 
knowledge  that  even  if  our  gunfire  did  not  finish  the  enemy, 
the  bombs  have  done  the  v/ork.  On  the  surface,  we  notice 
swarms  of  dead  fish." 

THE  HAWK-EYED  AEROPLANE. 

The  last  wrinkle  developed  for  submarine  hunting  was 
the  aeroplane.  Like  a  fish-hawk  it  can  see  its  prey  beneath  the 
water  by  flying  high  in  air.  Another  step  just  a  bit  in  advance 
of  aeroplane  scouting  for  submarines  is  the  use  of  a  small 
dirigible  for  the  same  purpose.  But  the  cleverest  development 
of  the  aeroplane-submarine  idea  involved  the  use  of  seaplanes 
for  the  purpose  of  launching  submarine  torpedoes  at  enemy 

ships. 

Here's  how  this  is  practiced.  As  most  folks  know,  the 
seaplane  differs  from  the  land-flying  craft  in  that  it  rides  on 
floats  instead  of  wheels.  These  floats  permit  the  seaplane  to 
come  to  rest  on  the  waves,  and  to  launch  itself  again.  Between 
these  floats,  which  resemble  a  pair  of  broad  home-made  sleds, 
may  be  slung  a  torpedo.  The  same  type  of  missile,  this,  that 
is  used  by  the  submarine  and  the  destroyer— a  long,  cigar- 
shaped  cylinder,  operated  by  compressed  air  driving  a  pro- 


THWARTIHG  THE  U-BOaT.  165 

peller,  and  equipped  with  a  warhead  filled  with  guncotton 
The  torpedo  is  held  by  shngs,  dehcately  adjusted  so  that  they 
can  be  released  in  an  instant. 

The  great  seaplane,  swinging  the  missile  of  death  between 
Its  giant  floats,  climbs  the  skies  in  search  of  an  enemy  ship 
From  a  distance  of  miles,  perhaps,  the  seaplane  looks  hke  a 
gull.  To  the  observer  in  the  plane,  however,  sweeping  the 
horizon  with  his  binoculars,  a  ship  is  plaualy  and  easily  seen. 
NOT  TO  BE  OUT-DISTANCED. 

Oif  in  the  distance  is  spied  a  ship  suspected  of  being  an 
enemy  transport.  !It  isn't  hard  to  determine— the  ship  can- 
not steam  away  from  them,  no  matter  how  swift  its  engines 
A  seaplane  can  go  so  fast  that  it  makes  the  fastest  torpedo 
boat  destroyer  look  as  if  it  were  standing  still.  The  attacked 
transport  may  try  to  bring  its  anti-aircraft  guns  to  bear,  if 
luckily  it  is  equipped  with  them.  Failing  this,  the  soldiers  wiU 
man  the  decks  with  their  rifles  ready.  Then  there  is  a  duel  of 
skill  and  daring  between  the  men  on  the  cruiser  and  the  lone 
fighters  in  the  seaplane. 

The  seaplane  must  swoop  sufliciently  close  to  the  water 
to  release  the  torpedo  and  let  it  drop  without  damage.  And 
this  must  be  done  from  a  sufiicient  distance  to  safeguard  the 
seaplane  from  the  vessel's  guns.  The  superior  speed  and  mo- 
bility of  the  seaplane  gives  it  a  great  advantage  over  the  ship 
attacked. 

Another  of  the  weapons  or  instruments  of  warfare  de- 
vised largely  for  use  in  destroying  the  evil  submarine  is  the 
"bhmp."  This  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  small  dirigible 
balloon,  hundreds  of  which  the  United  States  government 
started  to  build  when  it  entered  the  war. 

The  blimp  is  an  aerial  sea-scout.  Its  principal  employ- 
ment IS  for  observation.  It  is  a  watcher  of  enemy  movements 
on  the  water.  But  it  is  also  serviceable  for  attack,  and  espe- 
cially for  assailing  submarines. 


166  THWARTING  THE  U-BOAT. 

The  British  used  blimps  for  the  latter  purpose,  and  to 
great  advantage.  The  dirigible  sausage-balloon,  when  a  sub- 
marine is  descried,  can  hover  over  it  (as  an  aeroplane  cannot)  5 
remaining  as  nearly  stationary  as  may  be  desired,  and  waiting 
for  an  opportunity  to  drop  a  bomb  with  accurate  aim. 

If  the  submarine  be  under  water,  and  its  presence  be- 
trayed by  the  pecuhar  surface-ripple  that  marks  its  wake,  a 
bomb  with  a  delay-action  fuse  can  be  dropped  upon  it,  the 
projectile  not  exploding  imtil  it  reaches  a  depth  of  fifty  feet 
or  so.  In  case  the  first  bomb  does  not  score  a  hit,  there  are 
others  to  follow,  with  better  luck  perhaps. 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  «  BOMP." 

Thus,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  bhmp  is  an  important  aux- 
iliary of  the  flying-machine  in  the  pursuit  of  the  submarines. 
Both  together,  in  this  exciting  sport,  supplement  the  swift 
power-boats  called  "submarine-chasers." 

For  some  time  the  Navy  Department  has  trained  enlisted 
men  and  officers  for  this  work,  chiefly  at  a  Gulf  port,  where 
a  school— it  is  no  war  secret— of  aviation  and  ballooning  has 
been  maintained.  Six  officers  and  40  men  are  requked  for 
each  coast  station. 

The  Navy  Department  adopted  for  the  blimp  a  standard- 
ized pattern,  with  definite  pubhshed  specifications,  in  accord- 
ance  with  which  contractors  turned  them  out  in  numbers.  It 
is  a  sausage-shaped  balloon  160  feet  long,  with  a  great  di- 
ameter of  311/^  feet,  and  containing,  when  inflated,  77,000 
cubic  feet  of  hydrogen  gas. 

The  fabric  of  the  "envelope'*— that  is  to  say,  of  the  gas- 
bag—is coated  both  outside  and  inside  with  rubber.  It  is  re- 
quired that  the  balloon  shall  not  lose  more  than  1  per  cent  of  its 
gas-content  in  24  hours.  When  inflated  it  must  be  able  to 
carry  (including  its  own  weight)  a  total  of  5275  pounds. 

If  the  "Zeppelin"  be  excepted,  the  blimp  is  the  most 
highly-developed  and  scientific  heavier-than-air  flying  machine 


THWARTING  THE  U-BOAT.  .an 

lot 

ever  devised.  It  has  a  cruising  speed  of  35  miles  an  hour, 
but  at  a  pinch  can  travel  ten  miles  an  hour  faster.  At  the 
"cruising"  rate,  it  carries  enough  gasoline  to  keep  going  for 
sixteen  hours;  at  45  miles,  its  load  of  "petrol"  wiU  suffice  for 
ten  hours. 

Even  the  best  war  balloons  of  a  few  years  ago  were  at  the 
mercy  of  the  winds.  It  is  not  so  with  the  blimp.  Barring 
storms,  it  is  able  to  navigate  the  air  as  it  wishes.  It  can  rise 
safely  to  an  altitude  of  a  mile  and  a  half.  To  furnish  fuel  for 
its  engine  of  100  horsepower  it  carries,  in  two  tanks,  100  gal- 
lons of  gasoline. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ''BLIMP." 
In  effect,  the  blimp  is  a  combination  of  balloon  and  aero- 
plane.  Like  the  latter,  it  is  provided  with  "skids"  (resembling 
sled  runners  and  made  of  ash  wood) ,  or  sometimes  with  bicycle 
wheels,  for  safe  landing  on  terra  firma.  When  designed  for 
sea  scouting,  floats— cylinders  of  waterproof  fabric  stuffed 
with  vegetable  fibre— are  attached  to  the  skids,  or  to  the  wheels, 
so  that  the  airship,  in  calm  weather,  may  be  able  to  rest,  like  a 
sea  bird,  on  the  waves,  if  desired. 

The  blimp's  balloon  envelope  must  contain  two  smaller 
balloons,  together  holding  19,250  feet  of  hydrogen  gas.  The 
idea,  of  course,  is  that  if  anything  happens  to  the  major  bal- 
loon—puncturing hy  gunfire  or  by  other  mishap-^the  "bal- 
loonets"  inside  of  it  will  keep  the  machine  afloat. 

The  wingless  aeroplane  is  suspended  from  the  balloon  By 
cables  of  galvanized  wire.  There  is  a  special  arrangement  by 
which  the  "pilot"— the  man  who  steers  and  operates  the  air- 
ship—can at  any  time  measure  the  pressure  of  hydrogen  in 
the  balloon,  thus  knowing  what  he  has  to  count  on  in  the  way 
of  carrying  power. 

The  front  part  of  the  blimp's  car  is  occupied  by  the  engine 
and  radiator,  behind  which  is  a  bulldiead  of  sheet  steel.  In 
the  rear  of  this  bulkhead  sits  the  pilot,  and  behind  him  the 


168  THWARTING  THE  U-BOAT. 

"observer,"  who  makes  sketches  and  takes  notes  of  anything 
important  that  he  sees.  Behind  the  observer  are  the  tanks  for 
fuel  oil  and  300  gallons  of  water  ballast.  The  body  of  the  car 
is  covered  with  aeroplane  linen,  save  for  the  engine,  which  is 
sheathed  with  sheet  almninmn. 

In  order  to  hold  whatever  position  in  the  air  may  be  de- 
sired, the  blimp  is  equipped  with  two  horizontal  fins  and  three 
vertical  fins.  Not  every  bUmp,  that  is  to  say,  but  the  pattern 
approved  and  required  of  contractors  by  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment. These  fins  are  made  of  wood  and  light  steel  tubing,  re- 
inforced with  wire,  covered  with  aeroplane  linen  rubber 
painted  and  finished  with  varnish. 

THE   **  BLIMP"   WELL   EQUIPED. 

There  are  also  two  horizontal  rudders  and  two  vertical 
rudders,  for  steering  up  and  down  or  sidev/ise.  They  work  on 
ball  bearings.  A  blimp,  one  should  understand,  is  a  fish  in  the 
ocean  of  air,  a  swimmer— just  as  the  aeroplane  is  a  flyer,  like 
the  bird. 

The  blimp's  "car"  carries  an  electric  storage  battery  to 
furnish  lights.  The  same  battery  energizes  a  searchlight  for 
night  scouting.  A  wireless  apparatus,  for  transmitting  infor- 
mation to  the  shore  station,  is  part  of  the  equipment. 

The  blimp,  as  already  stated,  is  a  sea  scout.  It  is  meant 
to  be  operated  from  a  base  on  shore — ^which  base  is  in  constant 
communication  by  telegraph  and  vraeless  with  the  great  radio 
stations  that  are  strung  all  along  our  coasts  at  intervals  of  200 
miles.  These  stations,  in  turn,  are  in  communication  with  the 
huge  wireless  outfit  at  Arlington  (across  the  Potomac  from 
Washington) ,  whose  "antennae,"  uplifted  on  tall  steel  towers, 
receive  instantaneous  war  news  from  half  the  world. 

Thus  if  (just  for  illustration)  a  blimp  spies  a  hostile  sub- 
marine, the  news  is  instantly  transmitted  to  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment. The  department  orders  its  "chasers"  and  warplanes 
nearest  to  the  scene  to  go  after  the  undersea  boat.    Within  a 


THWARTING  THE  U-BOAT.  169 

few  minutes  the  pursuit  has  started,  and  the  U-boat  finds  itself 
in  much  the  same  situation  as  a  fox  hunted  by  hounds.  In  this 
case,  however,  the  hounds  are  in  the  air,  as  well  as  '^quartering" 
the  aqueous  terrain. 

The  United  States'  blimps  are  modeled  on  European  pat- 
terns. But  they  are  to  have  special  improvements  of  their  own. 
To  make  sure  of  their  efBciency  and  structural  correctness, 
each  contractor,  in  offering  bids  to  furnish  them,  was  required 
to  exhibit  a  model,  exactly  like  the  sausage  balloons  he  pro- 
posed to  make,  but  of  toy  size — one-thirtieth  the  length  of  the 
full-sized,  completely  equipped  aerial  sea  scout* 


CHAPTER  IX. 
THE  EYES  0¥  BATTLE. 

Aeeoplanes  and  Airships— They  Spy  the  Movements  op  Forces  on  Land  or 
Sea— Lead  Disastrous  Bomb  Attacks— Valuable  in  *' Spotting '^  Sub- 
marines— The  Bombardment  at  Messines  Bidge. 

JUST  as  the  submarine  has  revolutionized  warfare  on  the 
seas  and  presented  new  problems  for  the  naval  experts  to 

solve,  so  the  aircraft  of  the  last  decade  has  had  its  effect 
upon  the  operation  of  land  forces.  Probably  the  aeroplane 
and  the  dirigible  balloon  have  had  a  greater  influence  on  the 
conduct  of  battles  and  mihtary  campaigns  as  a  whole  than  any 
other  device  utilized  in  connection  with  the  war. 

It  is  significant,  too,  that  just  as  America  produced  the 
first  submarine,  and  then  failed  as  a  nation  to  develop  it  to  its 
highest  state  of  efficiency  for  military  use,  so  American  in- 
ventors were  pioneers  in  the  construction  and  successful  opera- 
tion of  aeroplanes,  or  airplanes,  which  were  first  developed  to 
their  greatest  efSciency  and  utility  by  the  French  and  Ger- 
mans. 

Some  of  the  most  striking  events  of  the  war  centre  around 
the  use  of  the  airplanes  or  dirigibles,  and  aside  from  the  pic- 
turesqueness  and  thrilling  atmosphere  that  seem  to  surround 
their  use,  the  operator  of  thb  aircraft  has  proved  himself  one 
of  the  most  valuable  servants  in  modern  warfare.  He  has  re- 
duced the  proudest  cavalry  to  second  place  in  the  matter  of 
reconnoissance,  and  has  rendered  services  which  have  hereto- 
fore been  impossible. 

The  air-man  sails  out  over  the  lines  of  battle,  so  far  above 
the  earth  when  necessary  as  to  be  out  of  range  of  the  most 
powerful  guns,  and  with  glasses  looks  down  upon  the  whole 
country.  His  machine,  whether  it  be  a  dirigible  balloon  or 
airplane,  is  equipped  with  a  wireless  telegraph  instrument  with 

170 


THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE.  171 

which  he  is  able  to  send  brief  messages  back  to  his  own  Hne 
or  military  headquarters.  He  can  and  does  mark  the  changed 
positions  of  the  contending  forces,  note  the  entrenchments  and 
reinforcements,  follow  movements,  and  last  but  not  least,  as 
was  noticeable  in  one  of  the  desperate  attacks  upon  the  Ger- 
man position  in  June,  1917,  swoop  down  upon  the  enemy,  at- 
tack the  lines  and  forces  with  bombs,  and  rain  bullets  upon 
them  from  rapid-fire  guns. 

No  longer  can  the  enemy  mask  its  heavy  batteries  or  con- 
ceal them  beneath  earthen  mounds,  plant  them  in  corners  of  the 
forests  or  in  clumps  of  bushes  without  their  being  located. 
The  "eyes  of  the  sky,"  as  the  planes  are  now  termed,  can  spy 
them  out.  And  when  the  airman  has  communicated  to  his  mili- 
tary commanders  the  positions  of  the  opposing  batteries,  he 
acts  as  a  director  in  instructing  the  friendly  gunners  in  finding 
the  range  and  cleaning  out  the  enemy, 

THE  AIR  SCOUT'S  USEFULNESS. 

The  air  scout  can  detect  the  enemy's  lines  of  communica- 
tion and  raid  it  with  bomb  attacks.  Even  when  the  land  forces 
cannot  reach  the  enemy  with  gunfire  he  can  rain  missiles  of 
all  sorts  upon  them.  Sometimes  the  airman  flies  over  the 
enemy  lines  and  drops  glittering  tinsel  or  bright  metal  de- 
vices, which  falling  to  the  ground  serve  as  marks  for  the  artil- 
lerymen in  finding  the  range. 

Where  the  cavalry  scout  or  creeping  scout  of  days  gone 
by  could  never  have  proved  successful,  the  airman  has  easily 
accomplished  his  purpose.  He  has  carried  messages  from  one 
frontier  to  another  in  hours,  when  it  would  have  taken  days  for 
a  scout  on  horseback  or  on  foot  to  have  rendered  the  service, 
if  they  could  have  accomplished  it  at  all.  He  has  eliminated 
distance. 

Trench  warfare  developed  in  the  world-war  in  a  way  that 
has  never  before  been  deemed  necessary  or  possible,  but  the 
miles  of  trenches  which  conceal  the  men  from  the  fire  of  the 


172  THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE. 

enemy  are  plainly  visible  to  the  airmen.  And  armed  with 
cameras  having  powerful  telescopic  lenses  they  can  photo- 
igraph  the  entire  scene  and  send  to  their  own  military  head- 
quarters not  mere  indicated  plans  of  the  battle  lines,  but  exact 
photographs. 

The  war  has  shown  conclusively  that  once  the  formation 
of  the  battle  line  has  been  decided  upon  it  is,  in  a  measure,  a 
fixture.  It  may  be  subject  to  rearrangement,  but  this  is  when 
the  force  of  battle  demands,  or  for  strategic  purposes,  but 
such  an  arrangement  requires  a  great  deal  of  time  and  much 
work.  The  battle  fronts  on  the  borders  of  France  and  Bel- 
gium have  ranged  from  100  to  nearly  300  miles  in  length,  with 
nearly  8,000,000  strung  out  in  opposing  lines  along  the  entire 
distance. 

LIKE  AN  IMMENSE  GRIDIRON. 

The  ground  has  been  dug  up  and  trenched  imtil  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  looks  like  an  immense  gridiron.  The  sol- 
diers almost  live  within  the  trenches  and  dug-outs  beneath  the 
ground.  Telephone  and  telegraph  wires  run  through  the 
trenches  and  even  railroad  tracks  are  laid  so  that  small  engines 
go  whirring  through  the  ditches  like  ■ 'dinky"  locomotives  in  a 
coal  mine. 

And  the  ^eyes  in  the  skies"  make  it  possible  for  the  com- 
manders to  know  each  other's  strength  and  the  disposition  of 
the  forces  at  all  times. 

Particularly  has  the  air  scout  proved  valuable  in  enabling 
commanders  to  execute  their  final  orders  without  grievous 
error.  There  is  danger  of  possible  mis  judgment  because  of 
the  great  length  of  the  firing  lines.  The  airmen  verify  posi- 
tions and  make  last  minute  reports,  taking  minutes  to  perform 
services  that  cavalry  forces  or  other  scouting  parties  would 
have  taken  hours  or  days  to  render. 

Operated  in  conjunction  with  cavalry  scouts,  and  motor 
and  cycle  squads,  the  airplane  is  a  destruction-directing  and 


THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE.  173 

defensive  force.  And  it  was  the  large  fleet  of  aircraft  that 
aided  Germany  in  making  such  rapid  advance  in  its  drive 
toward  Paris  in  the  early  days  of  the  war.  The  scouts  recon- 
noitering  in  the  early  da^vn  were  able  to  report  the  situation 
and  give  the  commanders  time  to  move  their  forces  before  the 
Belgians  and  French  were  aware  of  what  was  being  done. 

Germany  had  probably  the  largest  fleet  of  airplanes  at 
the  beginning  of  the  conflict  and  is  said  to  have  possessed  up- 
ward of  500,  of  various  sorts,  and  this  does  not  include  the 
famous  Zeppelins  or  dirigible  balloons.  She  also  had  some- 
thing like  two  dozen  factories  which  could  turn  out  flying 
machines,  and  had  been  at  work  on  the  development  of  her  air 
craft  long  enough  to  have  her  patterns  and  methods  of  manu- 
facture somewhat,  if  not  entirely  standardized.  During  the 
third  year  of  the  war  it  was  estimated  that  she  had  more  than 
quadrupled  her  force  of  flying  machines. 

GERMANY'S  PREPAREDNESS. 

Germany's  preparedness  in  this  as  well  as  in  other  direc- 
tions was  what  enabled  her  to  obtain  such  a  tremendous  ad- 
vantage in  the  beginning  of  the  v/ar.  Later  England  and 
France  concentrated  on  the  development  of  aeroplane  squads 
or  corps,  and  when  the  United  States  entered  the  war  one  of 
the  first  detachments  sent  into  France  consisted  of  100  aviators. 
How  rapidly  the  aeroplane  forces  were  developed  is  indicated 
by  the  statement  made  in  the  beginning  of  1916  that  the  air 
forces  of  the  Allies  were  represented  by  3380  aeroplanes  of 
various  types  and  64  dirigible  balloons,  while  Austria  and  Ger- 
many had  2000  aeroplanes  and  70  dirigibles. 

The  dirigibles — the  type  of  airship  commonly  referred  to 
as  Zeppelins — ^have  the  advantage  over  the  heavier-than-air 
machines  of  being  almost  silent  in  their  operations,  while  at 
the  same  time  they  can  remain  for  a  longer  time  suspended  in 
air  over  a  camp  or  battleground  without  being  detected.  The 
Zeppelin  is  the  development  of  the  old  balloon,  made,  however. 


174  THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE.  / 

in  a  conical  shape  with  a  long  basket  or  car  attached.  They 
are  driven  by  propellers  similar  to  those  used  with  aeroplanes, 
but  as  the  power  generated  by  the  engines  is  merely  used  to 
drive  the  machines  and  has  nothing  to  do  with  maintaining 
their  position  in  the  air,  the  motors  do  not  have  to  be  so  power- 
ful.   They  are  steered  by  rudders. 

Some  of  the  largest  Zeppelins  which  have  been  leading 
factors  in  night  raids  conducted  by  the  Germans  on  London 
and  English  coast  resorts  are  capable  of  maintaining  a  speed 
of  60  miles  an  hour.  One  of  these  immense  Zeppelins  was 
reported  to  have  covered  1300  miles  in  less  than  forty  hours, 
covering  the  German  borders,  and  still  keeping  in  touch  with 
its  base.  The  Zeppelins,  because  of  their  large  size,  can  carry 
large  quantities  of  bombs,  wireless  apparatus,  signals  and  elec- 
tric searchlights.  They  can  rise  to  a  height  that  places  them 
fairly  beyond  the  range  of  the  aerial  guns  used  for  fightmg 
the  air  forces  of  the  army. 

MANY  KINDS  OF  BOMBS. 

The  bombs  used  are  as  diversified  as  the  crafts  on  which 
they  are  carried.  The  French  aviators  at  one  time  dropped 
long  steel  billets  or  arrows  which  had  swedged  heads  and 
sharpened  points.  These  missiles,  dropped  from  the  height  of 
a  thousand  feet  or  more,  attained  a  velocity  and  force  which 
made  them  dangerous  weapons  of  the  minor  sort. 

The  bombs,  in  the  main,  however,  consist  of  jacketed 
shells  containing  high  explosives,  some  of  which  are  con- 
structed on  what  is  called  the  delayed-action  principle.  Such 
bombs  explode  after  penetrating  the  fort  or  object  which  they 
strike,  instead  of  going  off  by  contact.  Germany  is  said  to 
have  developed  some  of  these  that  were  of  such  size  and  power 
as  to  penetrate  an  armored  ship.  As  much  as  50  pounds  of 
explosives  or  chemicals  is  declared  to  have  been  carried  in 
some  of  the  larger  ones. 

The  big  dirigibles  mount  machine  guns  of  superior  range. 


THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE.  175 

Some  of  them  have  been  armored  to  an  extent,  and  to  make 
them  less  easily  detected  they  have  been  painted  tints  and  col- 
ors to  harmonize  with  the  clouds  and  sky.  Special  kinds  of 
gas  have  been  used  to  fill  the  envelopes  or  bags,  and  instead  of 
one  large  bag  they  consist  of  a  series  of  bags  enclosed  in  an 
envelope  or  casing,  so  that  if  a  bullet  would  penetrate  the 
envelope  it  would  only  destroy  one  of  the  gas  bags,  and  not 
cause  the  whole  thing  to  collapse. 

Besides  having  proved  of  great  value  in  the  land  cam- 
paigns, the  aircraft  has  shown  itself  to  be  one  of  the  most  ef- 
fective devices  of  warfare  for  use  against  the  submarine,  and 
all  manner  of  naval  craft.  From  the  heavens  they  can  see  the 
submarine  under  the  water,  and  as  either  the  dirigible  or  the 
aeroplane  can  develop  a  speed  greater  than  that  of  any  battle- 
ship or  cruiser,  it  is  not  difficult  for  it  to  soar  over  the  vessel 
and  drop  bombs  upon  it.  Even  gas  bombs  have  been  used  in 
the  raids  by  the  aircraft. 

ACCURACY  THE  GREAT  DIFFICULTY. 

The  difficulty  in  the  use  of  bombs  has  been  in  accurately 
directing  the  death-dealmg  devices  when  the  au*ship  or  aero- 
plane is  in  motion.  To  assist  in  this  work  aerial  range  finders 
have  been  devised.  These  are  constructed  on  the  principle  of 
the  finder  on  a  camera,  with  graded  scale  markings  to  indi- 
cate the  allowance  that  must  be  made  for  speed  and  motion. 
Complete  apparatus  has  been  built  up  for  launching  the  pro- 
jectiles from  the  large  dirigibles,  and  to  insure  the  missiles 
traveling  properly  vanes  have  been  attached  to  some  of  them. 

In  a  test  made  under  the  auspices  of  the  French  Govern- 
ment and  the  Aerial  Club  of  France,  a  few  years  ago,  one  of 
the  bomb-launching  machines  on  afi  aeroplane  scored  eleven 
bull's-eye  shots  in  a  target  ten  yards  in  diameter,  from  an  alti- 
tude of  more  than  2000  feet,  while  the  aeroplane  was  going  at 
a  speed  of  more  than  65  miles  an  hour. 

Though  there  has  not  been  any  widespread  use  of  the  plan 


176  THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE. 

the  air  has  been  "mined"  in  an  experimental  way  to  proiect 
certain  sections  against  night  raids  by  the  airmen.  Mining  the 
air  consists  of  locating  small  balloons  over  an  area,  each  bal- 
loon being  attached  to  the  other  with  wires.  The  small  bal- 
loons have  attached  to  them  explosive  bombs  wliich  would 
destroy  the  larger  aircraft  if  it  was  to  run  into  this  nest  of  air 
vessels  in  the  dark. 

Reverting  to  the  use  of  aircraft  in  naval  warfare  it  may 
be  said  that  to  the  aeroplane  the  relatively  fast  fleet  is  virtually 
stationary.  About  the  only  case  parallel  to  the  aeroplane  look- 
ing over  the  hill  and  down  on  concealed  enemy  positions  would 
be  in  rising  above  the  smoke  screen  thrown  out  by  destroyers. 
THE  SMOKE  SCREEN. 

The  smoke  screen,  by  the  way,  which  has  been  used  by  the 
British  with  marked  success  in  many  instances,  is  an  Ameri- 
can invention.  The  low,  swift  craft  are  equipped  with  special 
oil  burners  which  throw  off  dense  volumes  of  heavy  smoke, 
which  float  low  over  the  surface  of  the  water,  concealing  the 
maneuvers  of  the  larger  boats  and  protecting  them  from  the 
skill  of  enemy  gunners.  Its  effectiveness,  of  course,  is  influ- 
enced by  the  direction  and  strength  of  the  wind.  Used  gen- 
erously by  small  craft  convoying  a  ship  through  a  submarine 
area,  it  should  be  of  great  value. 

A  battleship  can  see  about  as  far  as  it  can  shoot,  anyhow. 
Except  for  smoke  screen,  or  the  famous  "low  visibility,"  which 
means  foggy  weather  or  darkness,  no  enemy  within  range  can 
be  concealed. 

What  the  fleet  commander  wants  to  know  is  how  those 
enemy  vessels  beyond  the  horizon,  which  may  be  within  range 
of  his  guns  tomorrow,  the  day  after,  or  next  week,  may  be 
distributed,  and  how  many  of  them  there  are.  This  is  where 
the  speed  of  the  airplane  comes  in. 

A  machine  which  can  travel  100  miles  an  hour  covers  a 
thousand  miles  in  10  hours.    Locating  an  approaching  enemy 


THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE.  ^'^^ 

fleec  this  distance  away,  it  brings  back  the  news  of  the  approach 
in  10  hours.  It  takes  the  fleet,  travehng  at  15  miles  an  hour, 
two  days  and  18  hours  to  cover  this  distance.  The  aeroplane 
can  beat  it  by  two  days  and  eight  hours. 

But  the  aeroplane  flying  high  enough  to  give  it  the  widest 
practical  range  of  vision  is  able  to  see  only  over  a  path  75  miles 
wide  under  the  most  favorable  weather  conditions.  Haze  will 
cut  this  down  considerably.  This  means  that  for  anything  like 
complete  scouting  work  a  fleet  must  be  equipped  with  a  large 
number  of  them. 

PROPORTION  OF  FIGHTING  PLANES. 

Then,  too,  there  must  be  a  generous  proportion  of  fight- 
ing planes  to  spread  out  in  a  very  wide  circle  beyond  the  fleet. 
It  will  be  appreciated  that  this  circle  must  be  a  mighty  wide 
one  if  the  enemy  planes  be  kept  far  enough  away  to  prevent 
their  counting  the  number  and  type  of  ships  in  the  command. 
There  is  required  also  a  large  detail  to  guard  against  the  sub- 
marines. While  an  aeroplane  can  see  quite  deep  in  the  sea, 
this  penetrating  vision  is  limited  to  the  water  directly  beneath 
it.  It  can  see  straight  down  in  the  water,  but  not  off  to  the  side 
at  an  angle. 

If  such  a  thing  is  possible,  air  control  at  sea  is  more  im- 
portant than  over  the  land,  and  of  first  value  is  the  fighting 
plane.  In  this  connection  there  is  an  aeroplane  gun  which 
works  well.  It  is  a  double-ender.  That  is,  there  is  a  breech  in 
the  middle,  and  the  two  ends  are  muzzles.  In  air  fighting  it  is 
seconds  and  fractions  of  seconds  that  count,  and  the  advantage 
of  this  gun  lies  in  that  it  can  be  fired  in  opposite  directions, 
thus  cutting  down  the  length  of  the  arc  through  which  it  has 
to  be  swung  to  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  enemy. 

Of  exceptional  value  to  the  United  States  navy  is  the 
super- American  type  of  planes  which  the  Curtiss  factories  have 
developed  and  which  have  done  such  wonderful  service  for  the 
British.     In  this  type  the  fuselage  is  entirely  enclosed,  built 


178  THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE. 

with  a  hull  much  along  the  lines  of  the  motorboat  or  hydro- 
plane.   The  'plane  may  thus  come  to  rest  safely  in  the  open  sea. 

It  weighs  nearly  6000  pounds  and  can  carry  a  useful  load 
of  more  than  2000  pounds.  The  boat  is  slung  well  below  the 
planes,  eight  feet  below  the  lower  one,  which  has  a  span  of  66 
feet.  Eight  feet  above  this  is  the  upper  plane,  which  overlaps 
the  lower  plane  by  18  feet  on  each  side.  The  complete  span 
of  the  upper  plane  is  92  feet.  It  can  carry  six  to  eight  men,  if 
necessary,  altogether  a  huge,  st'^rdy,  dependable  machine  with 
two  powerful  motors. 

And  what  was  done  to  give  -America  the  equipment  of 
'planes  which  we  needed? 

RESOURCES  AT  GOVERNMENT'S  COMMAND. 

Fifteen  aeroplane  manufacturers,  with  a  combined  capi- 
tal of  $30,000,000  and  a  total  capacity  of  175  machines  a  week, 
organized  and  placed  all  their  resources  at  the  command  of  the 
government.  The  organization  provided  for  the  interchange 
of  ideas  and  plans  and  for  the  standardization  of  manufacture, 
which  resulted  in  a  material  increase  in  output. 

One  hundred  and  seventy-five  machines  a  weeK  should 
give  us,  in  a  year,  9100.  And  there  are  other  conditions  which 
may  modify  the  estimate  both  favorably  and  unfavorably. 
There  is,  for  instance,  a  limit  to  the  amount  of  seasoned  lum- 
ber available  in  this  country  of  the  peculiar  type  and  quality 
needed  for  airplane  construction.  Provision  must  be  made  f os: 
the  future  in  this  respect.  All-steel  machines  have  been  made 
and  used  in  Europe  to  some  extent,  but  no  metal  alloy  has 
been  developed  which  is  likely  to  take  the  place  of  wood  in 
general  construction.  The  manufacturers  developed  some 
interesting  things  along  these  lines  which  were  not  given  to 
the  public. 

In  the  Spring  of  1917  the  fighting  in  the  air  took  on  an 
entirely  new  interest  abroad,  because  of  the  German  policy  of 
painting  their  machines  most  grotesque  patterns.    They  seemed 


THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE.  179 

to  have  taken  this  idea  from  the  old  American  Indian  custom 
of  painting  their  faces  to  frighten  their  opponents^  or  else  the 
fancies  of  the  German  airmen  were  allowed  to  rmi  riot  with 
vivid  color  effects. 

British  pilots  daily  brought  home  from  over  the  lines  new 
reports  of  fantastic  creations  encountered  amid  the  clouds.  The 
gayest  feathered  songsters  that  came  north  with  the  Spring  did 
not  rival  the  variegated  hues  of  the  harlequin  birds  that  rose 
daily  from  the  German  airdromes.  The  coming  of  this  fan- 
tastic order  of  things  in  the  air  was  first  heralded  by  a  squadron 
of  scarlet  German  planes.  It  then  was  noticed  that  some  of 
the  enemy  machines  were  striped  about  the  body  like  yellow- 
jackets, 

GAUDY  TASTES  OF  AIRMEN. 

Nothing  appeared  too  gaudy  to  meet  the  tastes  of  the 
enemy  airmen,  who  seemed  to  have  been  given  carte  blanche 
with  the  paint  brush.  There  were  gTeen  planes  with  yellow 
noses,  silver  planes  with  gold  noses,  khaki-colored  planes  with 
greenish-gray  wings,  planes  with  red  bodies,  green  wings  and 
yellow  stripes,  planes  with  red  bodies  and  wings  of  green  on 
top  of  blue,  planes  with  light  blue  bodies  and  red  wings.  Virtu- 
ally all  the  gaudiest  machines  were  in  red  body  effects,  with 
every  possible  combination  of  colors  for  their  wings.  Some 
had  one  green  wing  and  one  white;  some  had  green  wings  tip- 
ped with  various  colors. 

One  of  the  most  fantastic  met  had  a  scarlet  body,  brown 
tail  and  reddish-brown  wings,  with  white  maltese  crosses 
against  a  bright  green  background.  One  machine  looked  like 
a  pear  flying  through  the  air.  It  had  a  pear-shaped  tail  and 
was  painted  a  ruddy  brown,  just  like  a  large  ripe  fruit.  One 
of  the  piebald  squadrons  encountered  was  made  up  of  white, 
red  and  green  machines.  There  still  were  others  palpably 
painted  for  what  became  known  as  "camouflege"  purposes, 
as  guns,  wagons  and  tents  often  are  painted  to  blend  with  the 
landscape  and  thus  avoid  detection. 


180  THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE. 

This  lavish  use  of  paint,  however,  did  not  reduce  the  heavy 
daily  loss  inflicted  on  the  Germans  by  the  British  flyers.  But 
it  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  Germans  did  not  put  up  a 
stalwart  fight.  Just  as  their  resistance  was  strengthened  on 
land,  so  it  was  increased  in  the  air.  Just  as  the  Germans  threw 
in  new  divisions  of  infantry  and  new  batteries  of  artillery  to 
check  the  Allies'  offensive,  so  they  sent  aloft  himdreds  of  new 
machines  to  contest  for  the  mastery  of  the  air,  an  important 
phase  of  modern  war. 

The  manner  in  which  the  British  flying  corps  dominated 
the  air  during  the  battle  of  Messines  Ridge  in  June,  1917,  and 
completely  smothered  the  German  aviation  service  for  the  time 
being  is  one  of  the  most  thrilling  and  remarkable  stories  of  the 
entire  war. 

Hundreds  of  British  planes  were  well  behind  the  German 
lines  when  the  battle  broke  into  its  fury  at  dawn.  They  had 
stolen  over  during  the  darker  intervals  of  the  brief  night  when 
the  moon  was  hidden  by  storm  clouds.  Other  hundreds  went 
aloft  with  the  first  faint  streaks  of  coming  day  and,  guided  by 
the  flashes  of  the  guns,  flew  into  the  thick  of  the  fighting. 

COMBED  BY  MACHINE  GUNS. 

During  the  night  British  machines  combed  enemy  railway 
stations,  trains,  ammunition  dumps  and  troops  coming  up  on 
the  march.  Others  hovered  above  German  airdromes  and 
circled  low  among  airplane  sheds  and  fired  hundreds  of  rounds 
from  machine  guns  into  them  and  prevented  the  enemy  ma- 
chines from  coming  out.  Later  in  the  day,  while  the  fighting 
was  most  intense,  British  airmen  dropped  about  three  tons  of 
bombs  on  the  German  flying  grounds  as  a  further  deterrent, 
which  proved  highly  effective. 

In  addition  to  shutting  the  German  airmen  out  of  any 
early  participation  in  the  battle,  the  British  airplanes  were  in 
a  large  degree  responsible  for  the  fact  that  the  Germans  could 
not  launch  a  counter  attack  of  appreciable  strength  until  forty 


THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE.  181 

hours  after  the  battle  for  the  ridge  began  and  every  bit  of 
ground  desii'ed  by  the  British  in  this  particular  operation  had 
been  taken  and  secured. 

Far  back  of  the  German  lines  the  British  planes  seached 
out  troops  in  every  hamlet,  town  and  village.  In  several  places 
they  saw  them  gathering  or  marching  in  the  main  streets, 
whereupon  they  flew  down  low  at  times  and  opened  a  fire 
which  scattered  the  gray-clad  soldiers  in  all  directions.  All 
pilots  report  that  their  accurate  fire  had  a  most  demoralizing 
effect  upon  the  hostile  troops.  Convoys  and  ammunition  and 
supply  columns  were  attacked  while  on  the  march  and  the  dis- 
organized men  left  their  teams  and  automobiles  on  the  roads 
while  they  sought  shelter  in  nearby  ditches. 

AIRPLANES  ATTACK  TROOPS. 

Airplanes  attacked  troops  in  the  support  trenches  and 
sent  them  scurrying  to  the  cover  of  their  dugouts.  One  pilot 
made  so  many  of  these  attacks  that  he  finally  ran  out  of  ammu- 
nition, but  he  delivered  his  last  stroke  by  letting  go  his  signal 
rockets  at  a  platoon  of  soldiers  who,  evidently  mistaking  this 
for  some  particularly  horrible  new  style  of  war  frightfulness, 
fled  in  all  directions. 

German  troops  were  fired  upon  in  the  more  distant  back 
areas  as  they  were  entraining  for  the  front.  Many  of  the 
enemy  retreating  from  the  British  attack  and  hiding  in  shell 
holes  were  seen  by  the  low-flying  airmen  and  pelted  with 
bullets. 

One  British  pilot  patrolled  a  road  for  half  an  hour  before 
he  saw  anything  to  shoot  at.  Then  a  German  military  auto- 
mobile with  three  officers  sitting  in  the  back  seat  came  along. 
The  Britisher  dived  at  them  from  a  height  of  three  hundred  feet, 
firing  at  them  as  they  came.  He  flew  so  low  eventually  that 
the  wheels  of  his  under  carriage  barely  missed  the  automobile, 
which  swerved  into  a  ditch  while  going  at  about  forty  miles 
an  hour  and  crashed  into  a  tree. 


182  THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE. 

This  same  pilot  later  came  across  an  active  field  gun  bat- 
tery and  charged  it,  scattering  the  gun  crew  and  hitting  a  num- 
ber of  them.  Still  further  along  he  attacked  a  column  of  Ger- 
mans marching  in  fours.  The  column  broke  when  he  opened 
fire,  scattering  to  both  sides  of  the  road.  At  no  time  during 
his  stay  inside  the  German  lines  was  this  pilot  more  than  500 
feet  from  the  ground. 

ON  CONTACT  PATROL  W^ORK. 

Large  numbers  of  British  machines  were  on  contact  patrol 
work,  flying  low  over  the  advancing  lines  of  infantry,  con- 
stantly watching  their  movements,  their  progress,  any  tem- 
porary reverse,  any  attempt  to  form  counter-attacks  and  all 
the  while  sending  detailed  reports  back  to  corps  and  army 
headquarters. 

Of  the  fourteen  planes  lost  during  the  day  of  the  battle, 
a  majority  were  those  contact  machines.  They  had  to  fly 
through  a  frightful  storm  of  their  own  as  well  as  the  enemy's 
artillery  fire,  and  they  succumbed  to  chance  blows  from  these 
exploding  missiles. 

Late  on  the  day  of  the  battle,  when  the  enemy  machines 
had  finally  arrived  from  more  distant  airdromes,  there  was 
some  good  fighting  in  the  air,  some  of  it  at  close  quarters  with 
collisions  barely  avoided.  Twenty  enemy  machines  were  ac- 
counted for  in  the  fighting,  some  flopping  about  until  they 
broke  up  in  the  air  and  others  being  driven  down  on  their  noses 
in  yellow  buttercup  fields  so  far  back  of  the  fighting  line  that 
no  shell  had  ever  marred  the  symmetry  of  the  landscape. 

Some  of  the  most  marvelous  work  was  done  by  artillery 
airships.  One  squadron  of  these  alone,  acting  with  several 
batteries  of  British  heavies,  succeeded  in  silencing  seventy-two 
German  batteries  before  six  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the 
attack  which  began  at  3.10  o'clock  in  the  morning.  These 
planes  also  directed  the  firing  on  the  enemy's  guns  en  route 
jto  the  front,  some  of  the  big  weapons  being  drawn  by  cater- 


THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE.  183 

pillar  tractors.  Wherever  a  thousand  or  more  troops  weie 
observed  forming  for  possible  counter-attacks  the  ^rtiller^r 
planes  directed  "shoots"  upon  them. 

So  complete  was  the  British  domination  of  the  air  along 
the  front  of  attack  that  not  a  single  one  of  the  British  artillery 
observing  aeroplanes  was  lost  during  the  week  that  the  intense 
bombardment  was  going  on.  During  the  battle  British  aero- 
planes also  attacked  and  silenced  a  number  of  enemy;  machine- 
gun  positions. 

The  growth  of  the  aeroplane  industry  has  developed  as 
many  makes  of  machines  as  there  are  makes  of  automobiles, 
but  in  a  general  way  aeroplanes  are  divided  into  four  classes — 
monoplanes,  biplanes,  triplanes  and  hydroplanes.  About  90 
per  cent  of  all  designs  are  monoplanes  and  biplanes,  and  the 
types  are  distinguished  by  their  single  set  of  wings  or  planes 
or  the  double  planes  or  wings.  Both  types  have  their  advan- 
tages in  use,  the  biplane  being  regarded  as  more  stable  for  cer- 
tain scouting  purposes  than  the  monoplane.  It  can  carry 
heavier  weights— has  greater  lifting  power — ^but  is  not  capable 
of  as  great  speed  or  as  easily  maneuvered. 

MACHINE  ON  PRACTICAL  BASIS. 

The  War  has  placed  the  machine  on  an  intensely  practical 
basis.  The  manufacturers  have  learned  that  machines  con- 
structed along  certain  lines  will  travel  at  such  and  such  a  speed 
and  have  a  certain  lifting  capacity,  will  rise  under  a  particular 
speed  and  may  be  expected  to  do  certain  things  under  certain 
circimistances,  but  with  all  the  advance  which  has  been  made 
in  the  construction  of  the  air  machines,  the  designers  do  not 
yet  understand  all  the  "factors"  that  enter  into  the  "why"  of 
the  case. 

The  makers  have,  however,  succeeded  in  standardizing 
their  machines  to  a  degree.  The  story  of  how  the  aeroplane 
flies  is  a  highly  technical  and  scientific  one,  but  the  basic  prin- 
ciple is  the  reaction  of  air  and  an  inclined  surface  in  motion. 


184  THE  EYES  OF  BATTLE. 

It  might  be  likened  to  a  stone  skipping  across  the  surface  of 
a  pond,  if  the  imagination  can  conceive  of  the  water  as  being 
air.  It  is  simphcity  itself  to  drive  an  inclined  plane  against 
the  air  with  such  force  that  the  impact  will  produce  a  lifting 
power.  In  raising  an  ordinary  kite,  for  instance,  the  boy  runs 
into  the  teeth  of  the  wind.  His  kite  is  so  attached  to  a  string  as 
to  stand  at  an  angle,  and  as  he  runs  the  pressure  against  the 
air  drives  the  kite  upward.  In  the  aeroplane  the  propellers 
drive  the  machine  into  the  air  with  such  force  that  the  planes, 
standing  at  an  angle,  guide  the  machine  upward. 

There  are  innuriierable  problems  to  be  solved — those  of 
buoyancy,  delicacy  of  balance  and  many  others — ^but  the  de- 
signers themselves  have  not  been  able  to  determine  upon  a 
precise  formula  for  their  solution.  It  is  sufficient  that  the 
aeroplane  has  reached  a  degree  of  practicability  in  construction 
and  use  which  insures  its  permanent  existence,  and  has  given 
the  military  and  the  naval  forces  one  of  the  greatest  agencies 
in  the  world  for  protecting  themselves  and  watching  their 
enemieSt 


I 


CHAPTER  X. 

WAR'S  STRANGE  DEVICES. 

Chemistry  a  Demon  of  Desteuction — Poison  Gas  Bombs — Gas  Masks — ^Hand 

GBENADES MOBTAES *'TaNKS" FEUDAL     "BATTERING    RaMS  " StEKL    HeL- 

METS — Steange  Bullets — ^Motoe  Plows — ^Real  Dogs  of  Wae. 

THINGS  new  and  passing  strange — thousands  of  them — 
have  been  brought  into  being  by  the  great  world  war. 
Human  minds  have  developed  things  undreamed  of  by 
science  or  fiction — things  that  a  few  years  ago  would  have 
been  considered  too  strange  and  fantastic  for  even  the  profes- 
sional romancer  to  weave  into  the  tissues  of  his  stories. 

Every  known  science  has  been  called  upon  to  produce  its 
quota  of  new  things  which  might  be  used  for  the  destruction 
or  the  protection  of  men  at  war.  The  wonders  of  chemistry 
have  always  lent  descriptive  inspiration  to  the  pen  of  writers, 
but  mankind  to  get  a  vivid  conception  of  the  horrors  of  chem- 
istry has  had  to  wait  for  the  great  world  war. 

The  conflict  which  has  involved  the  entire  world  might 
almost  be  termed  a  warfare  of  chemists.  Without  their  dia- 
bolical products,  ranging  all  the  way  from  high  explosives  to 
poison  gases,  it  would  have  few  of  the  characteristics  of  ultra- 
frightfulness  that  render  it  unique  in  the  history  of  inter- 
national struggles. 

But  of  all  the  instruments  of  destruction  used  in  this  war, 
there  is  none  more  horrifying  than  the  so-called  "incendiary 
bomb,"  which  sets  instant  fire  to  whatever  it  touches  and  which 
spreads  flame  in  a  manner  so  terrific  that  three  or  four  such 
gravity-projectiles  dropped  from  an  aeroplane  burned  up  the 
whole  of  a  peaceful  Dutch  village  in  a  few  minutes. 

Now,  what  is  the  fearsome  stuff  with  which  such  bombs 
are  loaded?  A  new  chemical  compound?  Not  at  all.  What 
jfchey  contain  is  simply  the  mixture  of  two  of  the  most  harmless 

185 


186  WAIN'S  STEANGE  DEVICES. 

things  in  the  world — oxide  of  iron  (which  is  simply  iron  rust) 
and  powdered  aluminum. 

When  these  two  innocent  substances  are  mixed  together 
the  result  is  a  compound  truly  infernal  in  its  potentiahties  for 
mischief.  It  is  not  an  explosive  but  if  set  on  fire  it  burns  with 
an  intensity  that  is  positively  appalling.  Nothing  will  put  it 
out ;  no  quantity  of  water  has  any  effect  upon  the  raging  flames 
it  engenders. 

This  is  the  material  used  for  loading  incendiary  bombs. 
It  is  ignited  in  such  projectiles  by  a  mercury-fulminate  cap 
that  sets  off  a  fuse  containing  powdered  magnesium — the  stuff 
photographers  employ  for  flashlights. 

THIN  SHELLS  OF  STEEL. 

These  bombs  are  thin  shells  of  steel  or  iron — ^mere  con- 
tainers for  the  mixture  before  described.  They  are  so  con- 
trived that  the  fuse  is  instantly  ignited  when  they  strike. 

Whereupon  the  shell  is  melted  by  the  heat  generated 
within  it  and  a  flood  of  fiercely  burning  metal  is  scattered  in 
all  directions.  All  of  this  seems  rather  extraordinary,  and  it 
is  worth  explaining. 

Oxygen  has  an  affinity  for  iron,  readily  combining  witH 
the  latter — which  is  the  reason  why  iron  is  liable  to  rust.  This 
rust  is  a  chemical  compound  of  iron  and  oxygen ;  in  other  words, 
oxide  of  iron.  But  oxygen  has  a  much  greater  affinity  for 
aluminum.  And  so,  when  the  two  metals  are  powdered  and 
mixed  together  and  heat  is  applied  the  oxygen  flies  out  of  the 
iron  rust  and  combines  with  the  aluminum. 

The  process  is  started  in  the  bomb  by  the  burning  mag- 
nesium. And  then  the  oxygen  passes  out  of  the  iron  and  into 
the  aluminum  so  rapidly  that  an  enormously  high  temperature 
is  developed.  It  runs  up  to  3500  or  4000  degrees  Fahrenheit— 
which  means,  of  course,  a  tremendous  combustion.  The  mix- 
ture of  aluminum  and  iron  burns  like  so  much  tinder— though 
such  a  way  of  putting  it  is  absurdly  feeble. 


WAE'S  STRANGE  DEVICES.  187 

The  present  war  has  been  conspicuously  marked  by  rever- 
sions to  ancient  methods  of  fighting.  In  this  line  the  incendiary 
bomb  offers  an  excellent  illustration.  It  is  in  effect  merely  an 
adaptation  of  an  idea  utilized  by  the  Saracens — we  should  call 
them  Turks  nowadays — in  their  warfare  with  the  Crusaders 
of  the  Middle  Ages. 

DREAD  INSTRUMENT  OF  WAR. 

The  instrument  of  war  most  dreaded  by  the  Crusaders,  as 
they  found  it  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  was  the  incendiary 
bomb — a  projectile  that  flew  through  the  air  'like  a  fiery 
dragon"  as  they  described  it,  and  set  fire  to  whatever  it  touched. 
Sometimes  it  was  provided  with  iron  barbs,  by  which  it  clung 
to  buildings. 

This  was  one  of  the  ways  in  which  the  Saracens  employed 
the  celebrated  *' Greek  fire" — an  inflammable  compound  that  is 
understood  to  have  been  a  mixture  of  petroleum,  saltpeter  and 
pitch.  The  chief  horror  of  it,  from  the  Crusaders'  point  of 
view,  was  that  it  was  unquenchable.  Mere  water  had  no  effect 
upon  it.  Hence  they  were  sure  that  it  must  be  of  diabolical 
origin. 

But  the  up-to-date  incendiary  bomb  is  a  great  improve- 
ment on  its  original  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  modern  con- 
trivance is  thoroughly  scientific,  and  it  does  its  destructive  busi- 
ness with  certainty  and  dispatch. 

'No  less  effective  are  the  gas  bombs  which  were  introduced 
by  the  German  soldiers  at  Rheims,  and  which  when  exploding 
near  the  trenches  occupied  by  the  French  and  English  threw 
off  vapors  and  poisonous  gases  which  killed  or  overwhelmed 
thousands  of  brave  men.  These  devices  used  in  violation  of  all 
rules  of  civilized  warfare  sent  hundreds  to  the  hospitals.  Sev- 
enty-five victims  were  taken  at  one  time  from  the  trenches  to 
the  hospital  at  Zuydcoote,  north  of  Dunkirk,  where  it  was 
found  that  some  of  those  who  had  inhaled  the  fumes  turned 
a  violet  tinge. 


188  WAU'S  STEANGE  DEVICES. 

[Altogether  it  was  estimated  that  from  3000  to  5000  men 
were  affected  by  the  gas  fumes  in  this  first  onslaught  and  at 
least  10  per  cent  of  those  who  were  overcome  succumbed  to 
the  deadly  fumes.  Many  of  those  who  inhaled  the  poisons 
expectorated  blood  and  for  days  afterward  were  racked  by  ter- 
rible coughing.  In  many  cases  fever  developed  in  a  few  days 
endiQg  with  pneumonia.  When  the  men  were  not  sufficiently 
poisoned  to  cause  death  they  were  so  affected  that  their  use- 
fulness as  soldiers  was  ended  for  all  time.  The  poison  made 
them  confirmed  invalids. 

INTRODUCTION  OF  GAS  MASK. 

Naturally  human  ingenuity  was  called  into  play  to  pro- 
tect men  against  the  poisons  and  the  gas  mask  came  into  being. 
These  were  of  many  types.  The  early  creations  consisted 
primarily  of  a  nose  and  mouth  covering  with  a  receptacle  foi^ 
inclosing  a  sponge  or  gauze  soaked  with  a  chemical  which  pos-^ 
sessed  the  power  to  neutralize  the  gas  fumes.  Such  device^ 
have  been  used  by  fire  fighters  in  large  cities  the  world  over 
where  the  men  battling  to  save  buildings  have  been  compelled 
to  enter  smoke-filled  rooms  and  cellars.  Other  types  which 
have  proven  more  effective  are  designed  after  the  fashion  of 
the  diving  apparatus,  and  having  a  small  tank  of  compressed 
oxygen  with  feeding  tubes  running  to  the  mask.  The  oxygen 
combines  with  the  contaminated  air'breathed  through  absorbent 
cotton  or  sponge  and  provides  the  wearer  with  the  proportion 
of  oxygen  necessary  to  existence.  And  even  the  horses  have 
been  provided  with  such  masks. 

But  to  go  back  to  bombs.  All  through  France  and  Bel- 
gium, and  wherever  the  Prussian  soldiers  found  their  way, 
there  was  evidence  of  the  use  of  hand  grenades  which  were? 
thrown  against  the  sides  of  or  into  buildings  to  set  them  in 
flames.  Some  of  these  devices,  made  of  sheet  metal,  were  in 
their  action  similar  to  the  "Fourth  of  July  torpedoes"  familiar 
to  every  American  school  boy.    When  thrown  they  exploded 


WAR'S  STEANGE  DEVICES.  189 

throwing  oil  and  chemicals  over  walls  and  floors.  Some  of 
them  seem  to  have  been  loaded  with  bullets  and  were  in  effect 
hand  shrapnel. 

Then  there  developed  from  the  primary  use  of  these  nefar- 
ious weapons  the  recognized  hand  grenade,  which  is  actually 
hand-shrapnel,  plied  by  men  at  close  quarters.  Thousands  of 
these  have  been  thrown  by  the  armies  in  their  charges  on  the 
trenches.  And  then,  to  offset  the  use  of  these  devices  in  the 
offensive,  there  came  into  being  also  the  smoke  bombs.  These 
when  exploding  throw  up  great  clouds  of  black  smoke  which 
hang  over  everything. 

EFFECTIVE  IN  A  HUNDRED  WAYS. 
The  use  of  such  bombs  has  proved  effective  in  a  hundred 
ways.  They  have  been  used  to  create  a  perfect  shield  of  smoke 
to  conceal  the  movements  of  troops,  or  prevent  the  enemy  from 
finding  the  range  with  their  long  distance  guns.  Similarly 
bombs  which  contained  burning  chemicals  have  been  used  to 
hold  in  check  the  approaching  enemy  forces. 

Half  way  between  the  great  gun  and  the  hand  grenade 
stand  among  war  weapons  the  trench  mortars.  The  first  of 
these  were  used  by  the  Japanese  in  their  war  with  Russia.  The 
Japanese  mortars  were  mere  logs  hollowed  out  and  strength- 
ened by  wrappings  of  bamboo  rope.  The  projectiles  fired 
from  these  were  empty  provision  tins  filled  with  high  explosives, 
scraps  of  metal,  bits  of  stone  or  whatever,  in  the  emergency, 
could  be  found  to  fill  them. 

The  mortars  are  pitched  at  an  angle  and  the  projectiles 
are  shot  with  a  skyrocket  effect,  to  land  in  the  trenches  or  camp 
of  the  enemy.  The  Germans  developed  the  idea  and  the  per- 
fected mortars  are  of  steel,  and  capable  of  throwing  bombs 
weighing  several  hundred  pounds. 

«      ^^d  then  the  great  moving  fort  which  has  been  caUed 

the  tank!"    Those  snorting,  fire-spitting  dragons  which  were 

depicted  for  us  in  childhood  can  scarcely  bring  to  our  mind  a 


190  WAR'S  STRANGE  DEVICES. 

greater  element  of  the  fanciful,  the  horrible,  and  the  powerful 
than  the  steel  hulks  which  came  into  being  in  this  war  under 
the  name  of  **tanks." 

We  see  them  in  our  mind's  eye  spitting  fire  as  they  crossed 
No  Man's  Land,  amid  the  smoke  and  dust  of  bursting  shells. 
Keeping  steadily  on  their  courses  they  dived  into  huge  craters 
made  by  exploding  shells;  stretched  themselves  across  trenches, 
brushed  trees  and  boulders  aside,  and  kept  steadily  on  their 
courses.  German  wire  entanglements  were  as  so  many  pieces 
of  string  before  their  huge  frames.  Nothing  deterred  them. 
They  moved  forward  into  the  face  of  the  enemy,  reaching  the 
first  line  of  German  trenches.  There  the  soulless  devices  sat 
complacently  astride  the  trenches,  and  turning  their  guns  along 
the  ditches  swept  them  in  both  directions. 

THE  TANK  DEFIES  ALL  OBSTACLES. 
The  tanks  which  were  introduced  by  the  English,  move 
along  on  revolving  platforms,  so  to  sp^ak.  These  platforms 
enable  the  tank  to  overcome  all  obstacles  as  the  caterpillar 
tread  is  curved  up  in  the  arc  of  a  huge  cu^cle  at  the  front  which 
gives  the  vehicle  its  wonderful  tractive  powers.  This  large 
curvature  acts  as  a  huge  wheel  with  a  tremendously  long  lever- 
age equal  to  the  radius  of  the  circlet  or  the  spokes  of  the 
imaginary  wheel  of  the  same  diameter.  Only  that  portion  of 
the  assumed  wheel  which  would  come  in  contact  with  the 
ground  acts  as  the  lever,  and  it  is  just  this  portion  that  is  repro- 
duced in  the  front  end  of  a  caterpillar  belt. 

Although  varying  in  size  and  details,  all  tanks  have  the 
common  characteristic  of  being  divided  into  three  main  com- 
partments between  the  two  side  caterpillar  frames.  The  first 
is  the  observation  compartment  in  which  the  driver  and  his 
helper  are  perched  high  above  the  ground  to  direct  the  move- 
ments of  the  huge  steel  beast. 

In  the  middle  is  the  ammunition  room  from  which  the  guns 
carried  in  the  two  side  turrets  are  fed.     At  the  rear  is  the 


WAE'S  STRANGE  DEVICES.  191 

engine  room.  From  two  or  four  gasoline  engines  are  used— ^ 
these  driving  the  rear  axle  and  its  integral  sprockets  over  which 
the  caterpillars  run.  The  latter  run  an  idler  pulley  or  sprock- 
ets at  the  extreme  front  ends  and  are  supported  by  means  of 
rollers  attached  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  frame  on  each  side 
when  passing  over  the  top.  This  movement  of  the  caterpillar 
belts  is  exactly  analogous  to  that  of  the  ordinary  variety  of 
garden  insect  with  the  same  name  which  similarly  lays  dowTi 
his  own  track  by  humping  his  back  continuously  and  regard- 
less of  the  land  surface. 

The  tanks  are  steered  by  a  pair  of  small  ordinary  wheels 
at  the  rear.  These  are  supported  in  a  pivot  on  a  frame  extend- 
ed from  the  rear.  They  are  merely  for  steering,  and  support 
none  of  the  weight  of  the  tank  except  when  bridging  wide 
trenches  or  dips  in  the  surface.  Steering  can  be  accomplished 
by  making  one  caterpillar  go  faster  than  the  other  by  manipu- 
lating clutches  on  the  driving  mechanism. 

TANK'S  "CATERPILLAR"  FEATURE. 

The  ''caterpillar"  feature  of  the  tank  had  its  origin  in  the 
caterpillar  belts  or  shoes  which  were  first  used  on  the  great 
field  guns  and  mortars— those  tremendous  weapons  which 
shoot  bombs  and  shells  weighing  tons  and  containing  500  or 
more  pounds  of  gun-cotton  or  explosive  which  on  contact  is 
discharged,  rending  everything  for  yards  around. 

These  guns,  as  well  as  the  smaller  field  guns,  have  had 
attached  to  them  great  shields  of  steel  behind  which  the  gun- 
ners stand,  so  that  they  are  protected  against  the  old-fashioned 
sharpshooters  whose  duty  it  was  to  pick  off  the  gunners. 

The  caterpillar  or  wheel  belts  on  the  big  guns  consist  of 
flat  blocks,  or  shoes,  wider  than  the  tires  of  the  wheels.  They 
are  hinged  and  fastened  together  so  as  to  form  a  great  chain, 
and  when  placed  on  the  wheels  present  broad  surfaces  to  the 
ground  and  keep  the  gun  carriages  from  sinking  into  the  soft 
earth.    With  a  set  of  tljese  shoes  a  heavy  gun  can  be  drawn 


192  WAR'S  STRANGE  DEVICES. 

over  soft  and  irregular  ground,  which  would  be  almost  impass- 
able where  the  gun  is  mounted  on  wheels  of  ordinary  width. 

Before  these  belts  were  devised  it  was  necessary  for  every 
gun  crew  to  carry  a  supply  of  beams,  jackscrews  and  devices 
to  be  used  in  extricating  the  heavy  guns  when  they  got  fast  in 
the  mud.  Now  every  gun  has  these  belts  which  can  be  put  on 
or  detached  in  a  few  minutes. 

Paradoxically,  this  is  the  day  of  the  big  gun's  greatest 
effectiveness,  and  the  day  of  its  greatest  limitations.  The  war 
has  taught  us  more  in  two  years  about  gunnery  and  the  effect 
of  various  types  of  ordnance  under  varying  conditions  than 
could  have  been  learned  in  twenty  years  of  theoretical  research 
«— for  actual  experience  proves  where  theoretical  research 
merely  gives  ground  on  which  to  base  an  opinion. 

NATIONAL  RESOURCES  TO  DISLODGE  A  MAN. 
One  of  the  things  that  we  have  learned  is  that  when  man 
takes  unto  himself  the  humble  pick  and  shovel  and  proceeds 
to  dig  a  hole  for  himself  in  the  ground,  we  can  get  him  out  of 
that  hole  only  by  drawing  on  the  combined  resources  of  a 
nation,  by  constructing  one  of  the  most  complex  and  expensive 
instruments  in  the  world,  and  with  it  hurling  at  man  dug-ia 
a  projectile  weighing  a  good  part  of  a  ton. 

The  blunder,  perhaps  unavoidable,  which  stands  out  witH 
equal  emphasis  among  the  preliminary  preparations  of  all  the 
nations  engaged  in  the  struggle  was  the  underestimation  of 
the  artillery  power  required  for  the  conduct  of  a  successful 
military  campaign  under  modern  conditions  of  warfare.  It 
was  an  underestimation  so  great  that  in  the  light  of  develop- 
ments it  will  some  day  prove  ridiculous. 

At  the  opening  of  the  war  two  opposed  theories  of  artil- 
lery effectiveness  were  held  by  the  combatants.  The  French 
swore  by  the  medium  calibre,  rapid-fire,  low-trajectory  field 
piece.  The  Teutons  had  devoted  their  best  efforts  to  the  de- 
:^elopment  of  guns  so  big  that  their  opponents  were  tempted, 


WAE'S  STPvANGE  DEVICES.  I93 

before  they  learned  better,  to  regard  them  as  too  unwieldy  for 
effective  field  service.  Both  were  right,  the  French  in  the  full 
sense  and  intention  of  the  term,  the  Teutons  by  pure  accident. 
It  should  be  explained  here  that  the  word  Teuton  is  used 
advisedly,  for  in  reality  it  is  to  the  Austrians  before  the  Ger- 
mans that  the  development  of  the  11-inch  and  bigger  field 
gun,  with  its  special  carriage  and  caterpillar-tread  wheels  owes 
its  existence.  It  was  Austrian  guns  and  Austrian  gunners 
that  first  made  the  heavy  artillery  of  the  Teuton  armies 
famous. 

^  The  French  field  piece  performed  all  that  was  expected 
of  it,  but  it  was  handicapped  by  unforeseen  conditions  of  war- 
fare.   The  heavy  Teuton  guns  performed  their  mission  in  the 
very  introductory  stages  of  the  war,  then  failed,  and  later,  by 
the  irony  of  fate,  provecj  to  be  the  very  things  required  when 
the  unforeseeen  war  conditions  developed. 
A  WONDERFUL  GUN. 
The  Germans  and  Austrians  believed  that  they  could 
develop  a  big  gun  which  could  be  given  sufiicient  mobility  for 
use  in  the  field,  and  with  commendable  and  methodical  applica- 
tion they  proceeded  to  do  so.     The  theory  was,  first,  that  it 
could  batter  down  any  permanent  fortifications  that  man  could 
build,  and  when  it  was  pitted  against  the  concrete  ramparts 
of  Liege  and  Namur  it  blew  them  out  of  existence  in  a  few 
hours.  ^  The  Teutons  had  scored,  and  scored  so  heavily  that 
the  AUies^  barely  escaped  the  fate  the  Germans  had  prepared 
for  them  in  an  overwhelming  sweep  on  Paris.    That  they  did 
escape  this  fate  is  no  doubt  in  a  large  measure  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  second  effectiveness  claimed  by  the  Teutons  for  their 
heavy  ordnance  failed  in  its  full  accomplishment.     Used  in 
open  fighting,  the  great  explosive  shells  hurled  by  these  guns 
did  not  do  the  damage  expected  to  the  wide,  open  firing  lines 
of  the  Allies,  nor  did  they  produce  the  moral  effect  expected. 
The  great  shells  tore  tremendous  craters  in  the  ground,  from 


194  WAE'S  STEANGE  DEVICES. 

which  the  force  of  the  explosion  was  expended  upward  in  a 
sort  of  cone-shape,  shooting  above  the  heads  of  any  troops  in 
the  vicinity  except  those  immediately  adjacent  to  the  explo- 
sion. In  the  meantime  the  field  pieces  of  the  French,  with 
their  extreme  mobility  and  rapidity  of  fire,  were  scattering 
death  and  destruction  with  their  straight  shrapnel  fire  in  the 
solid  formations  which  were  so  popular  with  the  Germans  in 
the  early  stages  of  the  war,  and  which  today  they  do  not  seem 
to  be  able  to  drop  entirely. 

So  far  the  French  piece  did  all  expected  of  it.  The  Ger- 
man piece  had  proved  its  ability  only  to  blow  up  permanent 
fortifications,  and  this  was  nullified  immediately  by  the  action 
of  the  French  in  abandoning  the  concrete  shelters  and  moving 
their  own  guns  into  newly  and  quickly-constructed  trench  forts. 
A  THING  UNDREAMED  OF. 

But  the  thing  that  neither  side  had  dreamed  of  was  the 
settling  down  of  the  war  on  the  west  front  into  an  eternal  fine 
of  opposing  trenches  to  face  each  other  for  years.  That  it  did 
so  was  due  to  the  monumental  blunders  on  the  part  of  the 
German  staff  in  allowing  itself  to  be  outmaneuvered  and  beaten 
back  from  the  gates  of  Paris  by  numerically  inferior  forces,  and 
still  further  outmaneuvered  in  the  extension  of  the  lines  north- 
ward in  that  famous  series  of  flanking  movements  which  finally 
reached  the  sea. 

It  was  their  success  in  driving  the  German  army  to  earth 
when  it  was  stronger  than  they  were  that  saved  the  Alhes.and 
gave  them  the  breathing  time  required  in  which  to  further  their 
preparations  and  train  new  troops,  and  likewise  it  is  this  same 
mode  of  trench  warfare  which  has  made  their  task  so  difficult 
when  they  have  taken  the  offensive. 

Against  ordinary  trench  lines,  as  known  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  war,  the  French  field  pieces  were  more  effective 
than  the  heavy  cannon  of  the  Teutons,  just  as  they  had  been  in 
the  open.    Shooting  in  flat  trajectory  across  the  trench,  and 


WAR^S  STEANGE  DEVICES.  195 

exploding  just  above  it,  the  shrapnel  scattered  more  death 
downward  than  the  heavy  projectile  could  scatter  upward  after 
it  had  buried  itself  in  the  soft  earth. 

But  with  the  continuous  hne  of  trenches  stretching  from 
Switzerland  to  the  sea,  with  consequent  impossibiUty  of  out- 
flanking, demonstrated  by  the  Germans  to  their  sorrow  in 
repeated  repulses  of  their  drives  to  cut  through  to  Calais,  each 
side  felt  justified  in  replying  to  the  artillery  of  the  other  by 
digging  deeper  and  more  permanently,  with  many  feet  of 
shelter  overhead.  This  ended  the  effectiveness  of  shrapnel 
except  for  the  repulse  of  attacks,  and  again  the  heavy  guns 
£wung  into  the  position  of  pre-eminence. 

A  SITUATION  ALMOST  BEYOND  CONTROL. 
It  was  at  this  stage,  however,  that  both  sides  reahzed  how 
totally  inadequate  the  supply  of  these  heavy  guns  and  ammuni- 
tion was  to  cope  with  the  situation.  While  the  heavy  gun  was 
more  effective  in  blasting  out  the  enemy  from  his  dug-outs 
than  the  field  piece,  it  required  many  times  the  artillery  power 
which  either  side  possessed  to  handle  the  job. 

Then  commenced  the  race  of  the  ammunition  and  gun 
factories  to  turn  out  their  products  by  the  ton  where  they  had 
been  turned  out  by  the  pound  before;  a  race  in  which  the 
Allies  took  and  held  the  lead. 

With  the  greatly  increased  number  of  heavy  guns  it  be- 
came possible  to  develop  the  famous  curtain  of  barrage  fire, 
also  known  as  drum  fire,  with  this  type  of  ordnance,  as  well  as 
mth  shrapnel. 

It  is  with  this  form  of  attack  that  the  Allies  blasted  their 
way  slowly  but  steadily  through  the  strongest  networks  of 
trenches  which  the  Germans  were  able  to  build. 

Along  a  given  section  of  the  front,  or  rather  just  behind 
it,  the  guns  were  placed  singly  or  in  pau-s,  widely  scattered, 
some  close  to  the  line  and  some  well  back  from  it,  all  concealed 
as  far  as  possible  from  enemy  aviators.    There  were  also  many 


y^Q  WAWB  SlTwANGE  DEVICES. 

dummy  batteries,  so  that  if  the  enemy  air  scout  saw  a  gun  or 
group  of  guns,  he  had  no  way  of  telling  whether  they  were 
real  or  imitation. 

In  such  an  instance  before  the  actual  advance  of  the  troops 
the  fire  of  all  these  guns  is  concentrated  along  parallel  lines 
to  the  enemy  trenches,  first,  second  and  sometimes  third.  Each 
gun  has  its  work  mapped  out  for  it  in  advance  on  a  map  cov- 
ered with  tiny  squares.  The  actual  point  may  be  well  beyond 
view  of  the  gunners.  The  shell  is  landed  in  its  appointed 
square  solely  on  mathematical  calculation.  The  commander 
of  each  gun  knows,  for  instance,  that  he  must  fire  into  this,  that 
or  the  other  square  for  so  many  minutes  or  hours,  and  exactly 
at  a  given  minute  change  his  fire  to  another  source. 

RAIN  OF  SHELLS  LIKE  STREAMS  OF  WALTER. 

In  effect  on  the  enemy  a  continuous  rain  of  shells,  com- 
parable to  streams  of  water  from  hundreds  of  hoses  is  poured 
in  a  line  right  down  the  trench.  At  the  same  time  a  parallel 
line  of  fire  is  concentrated  at  a  given  distance  back  of  the 
enemy's  first  trenqh  and  in  front  of  the  second,  or  in  it.  This 
means  that  the  troops  in  the  first  line  must  not  only  take  their 
bombardment  without  hope  of  retreat  or  escape,  but  that  it 
is  impossible  to  get  reinforcements  to  them  through  the  secqnd 
curtain. 

When  it  is  calculated  that  the  first  line  has  been  destroyed 
or  demorahzed,  the  troops  leap  from  their  trenches  and  advance 
strictly  according  to  schedule  over. the  ground  between  the 
opposing  trenches.  Their  arrival  at  the  enemy's  first  trench 
is  timed  to  the  second,  and  just  as  they  are  on  the  verge  of 
plunging  into  their  own  curtain  of  fire  this  latter  is  gradually 
thrown  forward,  forming  a  screen  between  the  newly  captured 
trench  and  the  enemy's  second  line.  This  means  two  curtains 
of  fire  through  which  the  enemxy  would  have  to  advance  to  coun- 
ter-attack. 

Time  is  given  to  rout  out  what  remains  of  the  enemy  from 


WAE^S  STEANGE  DEVICES.  197 

the  first  line  dug-outs,  and  then  the  troops  advance  again.  In 
the  meantime  the  curtain  of  fire  has  preceded  them  as  before, 
moving  up  to  the  line  of  drum  fire  which  has  been  playing  on 
the  second  line  of  trenches  or  just  in  front  of  it.  If  any  of  the 
enemy  have  attempted  to  flee  before  the  attack  from  the  first 
line  they  are  caught  between  these  two  barrages  wliich  are 
gradually  brought  together. 

When  the  first  and  second  lines  of  fire  have  been  brought 
together  they  are  poured  with  redoubled  fury  into  the  second 
line  of  the  enemy  trenches,  and  then  moved  forward  again  just 
as  the  advancing  troops  reach  this  line. 

DEPENDING  ON  LOCAL  CONDITIONS. 
The  performance  is  made  continuous  so  far  as  possible 
under  the  conditions  peculiar  to  the  given  section  in  which  the 
attack  is  being  made.  Sometimes  it  is  possible  to  advance  over 
three,  four  or  five  trenches  in  a  single  attack.  At  others  it  is  as 
much  as  can  be  accomphshed  to  capture  one,  which  must  be 
consolidated  before  further  advance  is  made.  It  depends  on 
the  strength  of  the  trenches,  the  nature  of  the  ground,  the  dis- 
tance apart  that  they  are,  and,  of  course,  the  amount  of  artil- 
lery fire  which  the  enemy  is  able  to  concentrate  in  return. 

When  a  sufficient  advance  has  been  made,  it  also  becomes 
necessary  to  suspend  operations  for  a  time  while  the  guns 
behind  the  lines  are  moved  forward  to  new  positions. 

This  is  always  the  period  of  the  counter-attack  in  force  by 
the  enemy,  who  seizes  the  opportunity  when  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  the  artillery  is  unable  to  fire  because  it  is  being  moved. 
And  it  is  during  this  period  that  the  infantry  have  to  do  their 
hardest  fighting,  which  consists,  not  in  making  the  advance 
over  no-man's  land  to  the  enemy  trench,  but  in  holding  that 
trench  afterward  when  the  bringing  up  of  their  own  artillery 
behmd  them  to  more  advanced  positions  robs  them  of  some  of 
the  support  of  the  drum  fire. 

Still  another  factor  of  delay  at  this  period  is  the  time 


198  WAR'S  STRANGE  DEVICES. 

required  by  the  air  scouts  to  find  the  rearranged  positions  of 
the  enemy  guns  after  the  advance,  for  these  must  be  taken 
care  of  also  before  a  new  advance  can  be  made. 

An  explanation  of  this  form  of  attack  shows  why  news 
dispatches  have  told  first  of  an  advance  of  the  British,  followed 
by  a  period  of  quiet,  during  which  an  attack  by  the  French  in 
some  other  section  of  the  line  was  in  progress.    Then  suddenly 
the  scene  of  action  switched  back  to  the  British  lines  again  while 
the  French  were  consolidating  their  new  positions  preparatory 
to  pushing  the  general  advance  a  step  farther. 
GERMAN  EQUIVOCATION. 
It  also  explains  just  what  has  happened  when  the  Ger- 
mans state  that  the  "enemy  penetrated  our  first  trenches  in  a 
small  sector,  but  his  attack  broke  down  before  our  second  line." 
When  the  next  attack  is  ready,  of  course,  the  former  second 
German  line  is  referred  to  as  the  "first,"  and  so,  on  paper,  as 
far  as  the  uninitiated  are  concerned,  the  German  publicity 
office  is  able  to  build  up  a  continuous  series  of  enemy  attacks 
which  "break  down,"  and  somehow  never,  never  "penetrate  our 
invincible   line."     Actually   an   advance   of   this   nature   is 
extremely  slow,  but  it  is  sure,  and  it  is  made  at  the  expense  of 
tons  upon  tons  of  ammunition  rather  than  at  the  expense  of 
lives,  for  ammunition  can  be  made  faster  than  soldiers. 

Even  the  old  battering  ram  of  feudal  times  with  which  the 
ancestors  of  Kaiser  William  used  to  knock  down  the  castles 
of  the  baron  robbers  has  been  approximated  by  his  warring 
tribes.  With  the  retreat  of  the  German  troops  from  Flanders 
the  Allied  forces  found  crude  battering  rams  such  as  have  been 
shown  in  the  stirring  "movies"  when  the  ancient  warriors 
stormed  the  gates  of  the  city. 

One  of  such  devices  was  in  the  form  of  an  upright  frame 
made  of  heavy  timbers.  An  immense  log  was  suspended  from 
the  cross-piece  by  a  heavy  chain.  An  iron  band  circled  one  end 
of  the  log  which  was  used  for  battering  purposes  and  at  the 


WAK'S  STKANGE  DEVICES.  19,9 

opposite  end  were  handles,  used  by  the  operators  in  their 
nefarious  work.  The  ram  was  used  to  batter  in  the  doors  of 
houses  which  had  been  locked  or  barricaded  against  the  Ger- 
man soldiers.  In  their  most  destructive  moods,  it  is  charged 
that  they  used  these  devices  to  destroy  the  standing  walls  of 
houses  and  cottages  after  they  had  been  gutted  by  fire.  The 
Germans  would  not  permit  even  so  much  as  a  wall  to  stancj 
which  might  be  used  by  the  poor  peasant  in  rehabilitating  him- 
self and  building  a  new  home. 

NEW  METHOD  OF  WARFARE. 
The  new  method  of  warfare,  with  men  working  in  trenches 
and  dug-outs  and  millions  of  shells  breaking  over  head,  while 
missiles  rain  all  about,  necessitated  the  development  of  some 
device  to  protect  the  heads  of  the  fighters.  Therefore  the  steel 
helmet. 

It  has  been  shown  that,  due  to  trench  warfare,  about 
seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  wounded  on  the  western  front  had 
been  hit  with  shrapnel  or  pieces  of  shell  traveling  at  a  low 
velocity  and  therefore  had  torn  wounds  and  in  many  cases 
smashed  bones.  About  three  per  cent  of  the  wounds  were  in 
the  head  and  about  fifteen  per  cent  in  the  face  or  neck.  This 
led  to^  the  adoption  by  the  French  of  a  steel  hehnet  called 
after  its  inventor,  Adrian.  The  hehnets  were  first  used  in 
May,  1915.  That  their  use  is  justified  is  shown  by  statistics. 
Among  fifty-five  cases  of  head  wounds,  forty-two  happened 
to  soldiers  without  helmets. 

Twenty-three  of  these  had  fractured  skulls,  while  the 
remaining  nineteen  had  bad  scalp  wounds.  Of  the  thirteen  who 
wore  helmets,  not  one  had  a  skull  fracture.  Five  had  slight 
wounds  only,  while  none  of  those  who  had  worn  a  helmet  died. 
Quite  a  number  of  those  who  had  not  did. 

In  the  Academy  of  Medicine  Dr.  Roussey  brought  up 
the  point  that  due  to  the  helmet  the  number  of  cases  of 
sudden  death  from  wounds  in  the  head  had  been  so  decreased 


200  WAE'S  STEAITOE  DEYICES. 

that  the  number  of  wounded  with  head  injuries  treated  in  the 
hospitals  had  materially  increased. 

The  French  helmet  proved  such  a  success  that  Belgium, 
Serbia,  Russia  and  Roumania  equipped  their  troops  with  the 
same  model.  The  French  helmet  has  a  bursting  bomb  as  insig- 
nia on  its  front  and  is  light  blue  or  khaki  color,  depending  on 
whether  it  is  worn  by  the  metropolitan,  the  French  home  army 
or  the  French  colonial  army. 

THE  BELGIAN  HELMET. 

The  Belgian  helmet  is  khaki-colored,  with  the  Belgian  lion 
on  the  front;  the  Itahan,  greenish  blue,  with  no  insignia;  the 
Serbian,  khaki-colored,  with  the  Serbian  coat  of  arms;  the 
Russian,  khaki-colored,  with  the  Russian  coat  of  arms,  and 
the  Roumanian,  blue-gray,  with  the  Roumanian  coat  of  arms. 

The  French  have  made  more  than  12,000,000  helmets, 
using  about  12,000  tons  of  steel.  In  other  words,  a  ton  of 
steel  will  make  1,000  helmets.  The  British  also  equipped  their 
troops  with  a  steel  helmet,  which  has  no  ridge  running  from 
front  to  rear,  as  has  the  Adrian,  no  decorations,  and  a  rather 
wide  brim,  which  runs  all  the  way  round,  lit  is  of  a  khaki 
color. 

The  Germans  issued  to  a  certain  number  of  their  men, 
generally  those  most  exposed  in  trench  fighting,  a  steel  helmet 
considerably  heavier  than  any  of  the  allied  helmets.  It  has  a 
much  higher  crown,  and  comes  down  more  over  the  eyes  and 
the  sides  and  back  of  the  head. 

All  these  helmets  are  supported  by  means  of  a  leather 
skull  cap  inside,  which  fitting  closely  to  the  head,  distributes 
the  weight  over  t]-!e  whole  of  the  skull,  instead  of  simply 
around  the  edge  of  it,  as  is  the  case  with  ordinary  headgear. 

Of  course,  these  helmets  will  not  protect  against  high 
velocity  projectiles.  However,  as  they  do  protect  the  wearer 
from  low  velocity  projectiles,  and  as  these  are,  because  of 


WAE'S  STEANGE  DEVICES.  201 

infection,  often  as  fatal  as  severe  wounds,  it  can  easily  be  seen 
liow  much  good  has  been  accomplished. 

A  French  writer  in  La  Nature  shows  that  332  out  of  479 
abnormal  wounds  were  caused  by  shrapnel  and  pieces  of  shell 
having  a  low  velocity. 

In  13  out  of  15  cases  of  lung  wounds,  the  projectiles  did 
not  have  velocity  enough  to  completely  traverse  the  body  and 
come  out. 

In  71  cases  of  joint  woimds,  66  were  due  to  low  velocity 
shrapnel  and  only  5  to  high  velocity  bullets.  Practically  every 
one  of  these  wounds  could  have  been  prevented  by  breast  and 
body  pieces  and  knee  and  elbow  caps  of  armor. 

LOV/  VELOCITY  MOST  EFFECTIVE. 
As  for  every  man  who  afterward  dies  from  a  wound  made 
hj  a  high  velocity  bullet  there  are  about  ten  who  die  from 
wounds  made  by  the  low  velocity  shrapnel  and  shell  frag- 
ments, the  importance  is  seen  of  protection  against  these  low 
Telocity  wounds  if  it  can  be  had. 

The  wearing  of  armor  means  the  lessening  of  the  mobihty 
of  the  soldier.  In  the  open  field  lessening  of  mobihty  means  a 
decrease  in  efficiency,  which  cannot  be  tolerated.  However,  in 
trench  warfare  the  mobihty  of  the  individual  does  not  count 
for  so  much,  as  even  during  an  attack  he  does  not  have  to  go 
far,  and  generally  does  it  at  a  walk  in  the  rear  of  the  barrage 
jSre  of  his  ov/n  artillery. 

Efficiency  in  warfare,  as  indicated  by  the  keeping  of  such 
records,  has  set  the  brains  of  the  world  at  work,  and  armor  is 
used  to  a  limited  degree  for  the  protection  of  men  in  greatly 
exposed  fronts  or  open  positions. 

The  Japanese  in  modern  times  were  first  to  resort  to  the 
forerunner  of  armor.  They  used  shields  of  steel  and  in  the 
siege  of  Port  Arthur  such  shields  were  strapped  to  the  front 
of  the  body.  The  Germans  in  the  charges  have  frequently 
used  double  shields,  advancing  in  groups  of  four  behind  a  steel 


202  WAR'S  STRANGE  DEVICES. 

protector  carried  by  two  men,  leaving  the  other  two  free  to 
fire  at  the  enemy  through  port  holes  in  the  armor  shields. 

None  of  the  armors  has,  however,  proved  its  resistance  to 
the  high  velocity  bullets  which  the  powerful  field  guns  ram 
against  it.  Experiments  are  being  made  continuously  along 
these  lines,  and  Guy  Otis  Brewster,  of  New  Jersey,  has  devel- 
oped a  bullet-proof  jacket  and  headgear  which  it  is  said  ap- 
proximates perfection. 

In  the  presence  of  ordinance  officers  from  the  Picatumy 
Arsenal  he  invited  an  expert  mihtary  marksman  to  fire  at  him 
from  a  distance  of  60  yards.  A  Springfield  rifle  was  used 
with  regulation  ammunition.  The  steel  bullet  had  a  velocity  of 
2740  feet  a  second.  Only  one  shot  was  fired,  but  it  failed  to 
penetrate  the  armor. 

COMPOSITION  A  SECRET. 
The  composition  of  the  latter  is  a  secret,  beyond  the  fact 
that  it  consists  in  part  of  steel.  Jacket  and  headgear  weigh 
30  pounds;  but  the  material  is  so  flexible  that  the  soldier  wear- 
ing such  an  outfit  can  kneel,  lie  down,  rise  and  run,  charge  from 
the  trenches,  use  the  bayonet,  or  throw  hand  grenades,  without 
impediment  to  his  movements. 

It  has  been  denied  that  dum-dum  bullets,  placed  under  ban 
by  all  civilized  nations,  have  been  used  by  the  Germans,  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  explosive  bullets  have  been  used.  The 
report  of  the  Belgian  Commission,  which  investigated  the  hor- 
rors when  the  Germans  first  invaded  King  Albert's  country, 
contains  testimony  which  proves  conclusively  that  such  missiles 
were  used.  These  bullets  were,  in  effect,  small  shells  contain- 
ing an  explosive  chemical  which  was  set  off  by  contact.  Pho- 
tographs taken  of  .wounds  show  the  effect  which  these  bullets 

produced.  ,         t  4.1, 

More  than  that,  the  Russians  charged  that  along  the  nortn- 
em  frontier  the  Germans  fired  glass  bullets,  although  there  is 
nothing  to  sustain  the  belief  that  such  missiles  were  generaUy 


WAE'S  STEANGE  DEVICES.  203 

used.  The  dum-dum  bullet  is  a  soft-nosed  missile  which,  when 
it  strikes  a  bone,  flattens  out  and  splatters,  creating  a  jagged 
wound  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  treat  or  heal.  The  Ger- 
mans, in  ordinary,  use  a  steel  jacketed  bullet  which  possesses 
high  penetrative  powers,  while  the  French  at  the  beginning  of 
the  war  were  using  the  ordinary  lead  bullet. 

AN  AMERICAN  BULLET. 

Among  the  recent  developments  is  a  bullet  which  had  its 
origin  in  one  of  the  United  States  arsenals  for  manufacturing 
ammunition.  This  is  a  steel  bullet  covered  with  lead.  The 
effect  of  such  a  combination  on  the  penetrating  quality  of  the 
bullet  may  be  readily  understood  by  anyone  who  has  ever  tried 
the  experiment  of  driving  an  ordinary  needle  into  a  board 
through  a  cork.  If  the  cork  is  placed  on  the  board  and  the 
needle  pressed  down  through  the  cork  until  it  touches  the  board, 
a  powerful  blow  from  a  hammer  will  force  the  needle  into  the 
board  without  breaking.  In  the  application  of  this  principle 
to  the  manufacture  of  the  bullet,  experiments  proved  that  the 
soft  lead  acted  as  a  guide  or  sustainer  which  permitted  the  inner 
steel  to  penetrate  without  deviation. 

And  just  as  these  oddities  of  warfare  have  been  created 
to  meet  arising  situations,  others  have  been  created  to  care  for 
the  sick  and  injured — ^those  who  have  fallen  victims  of  the 
agencies  of  destruction.     Who  ever  heard  of  a  sand  sled? 

Such  sleds  have  been  used  effectively  on  the  Eastern  fronts 
to  carry  wounded  soldiers  to  the  hospitals.  They  are  long, 
staunchly  constructed  sleds  similar  to  those  used  on  the  farms 
in  America  for  hauling  plows,  cultivators  and  other  agricul- 
tural implements  across  the  fields  which  have  been  furrowed. 

The  sleds  have  broad  runners  which  do  not  sink  into  the 
sands  and  can  be  drawn  easily.  In  winter  these  same  sleds 
have  served  to  haul  the  wounded  and  sick  over  miles  of  snow 
and  ice  on  the  Russian  frontier. 

Then,  though  it  is  not  a  weapon  of  offense,  there  is  the 


:^04  WAR'S  STEANGE  DEVICES. 

tractor  plow  which  works  at  night.  It  is  a  war  device  to  the 
extent  that  as  England's  need  for  food  has  been  great  and  con- 
stant the  tractor  plow  has  been  used  to  solve  the  problem  of 
working  the  ground.  On  the  estate  of  Sir  Arthur  Lee,  the 
director-general  of  food  production  in  England,  great  agricul- 
tural motors  equipped  with  acetylene  searchhghts  were  kept 
at  work  in  the  fields  day  and  night. 

Dogs  too  have  been  ushered  into  the  arena.  No  longer 
may  the  old  English  expression,  'Xet  Slip  the  Dogs  of  War,'' 
be  regarded  as  a  mere  figm^e  of  speech.  The  war  dogs,  and  par- 
ticularly the  animals  used  by  the  Red  Cross  on  the  battlefields, 
have  assumed  a  regular  status  in  the  armies  of  the  world.  In 
the  European  armies  are  thousands  of  dogs  which  have  been 
trained  to  act  as  messengers  or  spies,  or  to  seek  out  on  the  bat- 
tlefields the  wounded.  The  Germans  use  a  canine  commonly 
known  as  "Boxers,"  These  animals  are  a  cross  between  the 
German  mastiff  and  the  English  bulldog,  and  on  the  fields  of 
Europe  they  have  proved  to  be  ''kings"  among  the  Red  Cross 
dogs.  The  animals  are  first  taught  to  distinguish  between  the 
uniforms  of  the  soldiers  of  their  own  comitry  and  those  of  the 
enemy.  Then  they  learn  that  the  principal  business  in  life  for 
them  is  to  find  and  aid  wounded  soldiers. 

The  animals  are  trained  to  search  without  barking  and  to 
return  to  headquarters  and  urge  their  trainers  to  follow  them 
with  stretcher  bearers.  Sometimes  the  dogs  bring  back  such 
an  article  as  a  cap,  tobacco  pouch  or  handkerchief.  The  dogs 
of  the  Red  Cross  carry  on  their  collars  a  pouch  containing  a 
first  aid  kit,  by  means  of  which  a  wounded  soldier  may  staunch 
the  flow  of  blood  or  help  himself  until  assistance  arrives. 

It  is  reported  that  one  of  these  dogs  rescued  fifty  men  on 
the  Somm_e  battlefield  in  France.  The  animal  known  as  Filax 
of  Lewanno,  is  a  typical  German  sheepdog.  Such  dogs  weigh 
from  50  to  65  pounds  and  are  very  powerful,  but  the  Irish  ter- 
riers and  Airedales  have  also  been  trained  to  do  effective  work, 
as  have  the  Great  Danes  and  St.  Bernards. 


CHAPTER  XL 

WONDERFUL  WAR  WEAPONS. 

The  Terrible  Rapid-fire  Gu^^-Armored  Automobiles  and  Automobile 
Artillery— Howitzers— Mounted  Forts— Armored  Trains— Observa- 
tion Towers— Wireless  Apparatus— The  Army  I^antry. 

IT  is  a  long  step  from  the  old,  smooth  bore,  flintlock  rifle  of 
the  Revolutionary  days  to  the  modern  magazine  gmi,  with 
its  long-pointed  cartridges;  and  it  is  almost  as  great  a  step 
from  the  crude  iron  cannons  and  smooth  bore  mortars  of  the 
Civil  War,  with  their  canister  and  grape  shot,  do^vn  to  the 
huge,  42  centimeter  gmis  which  have  boomed  their  way  through 
France  and  Belgium. 

The  patriotic  citizen  who  is  unfitted  for  military  ser\^ice 
no  longer  sits  at  home  and  aids  the  armed  forces  of  his  country 
by  m^elting  pewter  spoons  into  bullets,  or  cutting  patches  of 
cloth  to  serve  as  wads  to  pack  do^vn  into  the  muzzle  of  guns. 
The  powder  horn  and  the  bullet  mould  are  devices  of  the  past. 
The  whole  world  working  in  the  old-fashioned  way  could  not 
have  in  the  course  of  the  "war-of-nations"  made  suflicient  bul- 
lets to  supply  the  forces  for  a  single  week. 

^  Those  who  must  sacrifice  in  the  stress  of  war  now  turn 
their  silverware  and  precious  metals  into  nuggets  that  may  be 
sold  to  produce  revenue,  so  that  the  armed  forces  may  pur- 
chase the  machine-made  cartridges  and  weapons  required  to 
fight  the  enemy. 

Modern  warfare  has  developed  the  cHmax  in  armament 
and  the  world  has  learned  more  within  the  last  few  years  about 
the  devilish  instruments  of  destruction  which  human  ingenuity 
has  devised  than  was  known  in  all  the  ages  before.  Since  Ger^ 
many  and  Austria  were  the  first  into  aetion-^-actually  precipi^ 
tated  the  great  conflict-^and  as  by  their  years  of  preparation 
t.iey  were  ready  for  the  emergency,  it  best  serves  the  purposes 
ot  those  who  seek  enlightenment  on  the  subject  of  armaments 

205 


206  WOKDEEFUL  WAE  WEAPONS.  / 

and  weapons  to  deal  with  the  equipment  of  the  Teuton  forces. 

Other  nations — England,  France  and  the  United  States 
in  particular — ^have,  in  some  directions,  surpassed  the  Germans 
in  developing  efficient  weapons,  but  in. the  main,  when  Germany 
plunged  into  the  war,  she  had  all  around  what  was  conceded  to 
be  the  best  equipment  that  science  and  mechanics  could  supply. 
INFANTRY  AND  FIELD  ARTILLERY. 

While  stories  told  of  the  awful  havoc  wrought  by  the  Ger- 
man siege  guns  in  reducing  the  forts  and  fortifications  in 
France  and  Belgium  are  true,  it  is  also  true  that  the  bulwark 
of  the  mihtary  organization  is  the  infantry  and  field  artillery. 
The  big  guns  may  level  the  forts  and  reduce  them  to  powder, 
driving  off  the  opposing  forces,  but  the  infantry  must  advance 
and  the  small  arms  and  rapid-fke  guns  must  keep  the  oppos- 
ing forces  from  resuming  the  position  which  they  had  aban- 
doned. 

The  difficulty  of  handling  the  big  guns  has  always  been  a 
problem,  except  in  fortifications  and  at  fixed  points  of  defense, 
and  it  has  only  been  within  a  few  years  that  a  solution  of  the 
trouble  has  been  found.  The  solution  lay  in  the  use  of  tractors, 
or  the  tractor  principle,  which  every  person  f amihar  with  farm- 
ing and  the  "traction  engine"  can  recognize. 

Germany  and  Austria,  as  in  iriany  other  matters,  solved 
the  problem  by  building  mortars  for  field  service  which  out- 
classed the  heaviest  artillery  of  the  old  type,  and  mounting  them 
on  tractors.  It  would  require  a  team  of  probably  forty  horses 
to  pull  one  of  the  German  42-centimeter  guns  over  the  rough 
ground,  and  then  a  relay  would  be  required  every  few  hours. 
An  immense  number  of  horses  would  be  required  and  the  trans- 
portation would  be  slow,  and  not  certain  at  best. 

Early  in  the  war  Austria  sent  to  the  front  a  battery  of 
30-centimeter  howitzers,  and  from  the  famous  Eiupp  gun 
works  there  were  21  and  28-centimeter  howitzers.  Later  came 
the  4!2-centimeter  guns,  which  are  classed  as  automobile  field 


WONDERFUL  WAR  WEAPONS.  207 

artillery.     These  are  the  weapons  which  leveled  the  forts  at 
Liiege  and  were  used  to  bombard  Fort  Maubeuge. 

The  immense  howitzers,  with  their  caterpillar  wheels,  are 
faken  apart  and  transported  to  the  scene  of  action  in  sections, 
or  miits.  An  automobile  tractor  carries  the  artillery  crew  and 
tools  and  furnishes  the  motive  power.  The  second  car  carries 
the  platform  and  turntable  on  which  the  gun  is  mounted,  and 
the  third  hauls  the  barrel,  or  gun  proper. 

THE  MOVING  OF  HEAVY  WEAPONS. 

The  weapons  can  be  moved  anywhere,  though  they  weigh 
as  much  as  forty  tons  in  some  cases.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary 
to  build  special  roads  where  fields  must  be  crossed,  but  on  the 
highways  there  is  little  trouble.  The  big  howitzers  are  built  on 
the  principle  of  the  large  caliber  guns  used  on  battleships — 
that  is,  there  is  a  system  of  recoil  springs  and  air  cushions  to 
take  up  the  shock  when  the  gun  is  fired,  so  that  the  terrific 
energy,  when  the  charge  is  exploded,  shall  not  be  borne  by  the 
breech  of  the  gun.  The  howitzers  can  be  turned  in  any  direc- 
tion, and  the  gearing  attached  to  the  mounting  is  such  that  the 
barrels  can  be  pitched  at  any  angle. 

Such  gims  fire  an  explosive  shell  weighing  from  500  to 
1000  pounds,  and  because  of  their  form  of  construction — they 
have  shorter  barrels  than  the  naval  guns — which  reduces  the 
surface  of  the  barrel  subject  to  erosion,  they  are  longer  lived 
than  the  long  guns.  The  endurance  of  the  guns  is  a  factor 
because  it  is  difficult  to  get  repairs  for  such  great  weapons  on 
the  field  of  battle. 

At  the  outbreak  the  contending  forces  are  said  to  have  had 
.4,000  guns  in  the  field  artillery.  Among  the  devices  of  inter- 
est identified  with  the  artillery  is  the  armored  automobile,  which 
has  been  described  as  the  "cavalry"  of  motor  driven  artillery. 
The  advent  of  the  armored  automobile  in  the  war  changed  many 
features  of  campaigning  and  helped  to  revolutionize  military 


208  WONDERFUL  ^YAR  AYEAPONS. 

methods.    The  armored  automobile  is  an  ordinary  chassis  with 
a  body  made  of  chilled  steel.  / 

Many  types  have  been  devised,  including  turreted  auto- 
mobile, mounting  one  or  two  rapid  fire  guns  whicli  can  be 
turned  in  any  direction.  The  armored  motors  have  high- 
powered  engines,  and  the  chassis  chosen  for  these  new  instru- 
ments of  war  are  of  the  heaviest  types.  Some  have  been  con- 
structed especially  for  the  purpose.  On€  of  these,  used  by  the 
Germans,  had  a  "barbette"  top,  which  looked  like  the  shell  of 
a  tortoise,  fitted  down  over  the  chassis.  Guns  protruded  from 
holes  in  the  front,  back  and  sides. 

VALUE  OF  ARMORED  CARS. 

The  armored  cars  have  proved  extremely  valuable  for 
scouting  purposes.  They  can  sneak  through  and  complete 
scouting  where  mounted  men  would  be  detected,  and  besides, 
are  better  able  to  protect  themselves  against  attack.  The  cars 
also  possess  the  ability  to  speed  away  out  of  range  of  enemy 
detachments. 

The  army  officer,  too,  has  taken  to  the  armored  automobile, 
and  put  aside  his  horse.  You  cannot  kill  an  automobile;  and 
the  armor  laughs  at  the  bullets  from  small  caliber  guns.  The 
officers  can,  with  the  high-speed  armored  cars,  travel  from  one 
end  of  a  line  to  the  other  and  in  a  few  hours  make  surveys  and 
complete  observations  which  would  take  days  were  horses  used. 

Very  few  of  the  light-armored  cars  used  by  the  officers  are 
armed,  the  attache  or  aide  of  the  officer  carrying  a  rifle.  Some 
of  the  armored  cars  used  for  scouting  and  by  the  officers  have, 
in  the  case  of  Germany,  been  provided  with  sharp  knives  at- 
tached to  the  front  of  the  machine.  These  are  steel  blades 
vertically  attached  to  the  frame  and  hood,  and  are  designed  to 
cut  wires  which  the  enemy  may  have  stretched  across  highways 
or  passages  to  hinder  progress. 

The  armored  covering  on  some  of  these  cars  is  little  more 
than  a  steel  box,  with  "port"  holes  all  around.     There  is  no 


WONDERFUL  WAR  WEAPONS.  209 

hood,  dome  or  cupola,  and  the  men  are  supposed  to  protect 
themselves  by  keeping  their  heads  below  the  sides  of  the  box. 
Besides  the  driver,  some  of  the  cars  carry  tv/o  or  three  men, 
who  are  further  protected  against  the  bullets  of  the  enemy  and 
the  chance  missile  from  the  sharpshooter  by  steel  headpieces  or 
helmets. 

The  Belgians  have  a  type  of  car  of  heavy  design,  equipped 
with  huge  headlights,  as  well  as  a  searchhght  to  operate  at 
night.  The  car  has  a  rapid  fire  gun  mounted  in  a  cupola- 
formed  revolving  turret.  In  the  matter  of  automobiles  in  the 
army,  Italy  outranked  Germany  at  the  beginning  of  the  war. 
While  Germany  had  Mercedes  and  Opel  trucks,  mounting  five 
to  seven  rapid  fire  guns,  which,  with  their  steel  armor  and  solid 
tire  disc  wheels,  were  actually  miniature  forts,  the  Italians  had 
more  formidable  mounted  creations  of  the  same  sort. 
ITALY'S  SINGULAR  POSITION. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  Italy's  position  in  regard  to  motors  is 
unique  among  the  other  countries  in  the  war.  Not  only  are  the 
transportation  conditions  different,  but  the  motorcar  industry 
in  the  country  is  on  a  different  basis.  It  is  said  to  have  been  the 
only  one  of  the  countries  M^iich  was  able  to  meet  the  demand 
put  upon  it  for  motors  without  going  into  some  other  land  to 
augment  its  supply.  Italy  did  not  buy  a  single  American 
motor  vehicle  for  war  purposes.  There  are  cars  of  foreign 
makes  in  the  army  and  with  the  Red  Cross,  but  these  vehicles 
were  in  the  country — purchased  for  private  use — when  the  war 
broke  out  and  were  requisitioned. 

The  big  guns  of  the  army  are  handled  by  motor  tractors, 
95. per  cent  of  the  army  mail  service  is  motorcar  service  and  95 
per  cent  of  the  drinking  water  for  the  fighting  forces  is  deliv- 
ered by  motortruck.  Profiting  by  the  lessons  of  the  other 
countries  called  to  war,  Italy  had  time  in  which  to  prepare  for 
emergencies,  and  when  the  order  for  mobilizing  forces  was 
issued  the  motorcar  factories  were  speeded  up  and  the  workers 


210  WONDEEFUL  WAR  WEAPONS.  / 

were  permitted  to  stay  on  the  job,  instead  of  being  called  out  to 
fill  up  the  ranks  of  the  army.  '   -  .    / 

Compared  with  the  resources  of  America,  the  Italian  motor 
industry  is  not  large;  but  the  product  is  uniform  and  practically 
all  of  the  factories  are  conveniently  located  for  distributing  the 
machines  to  the  army  on  the  frontier  and  readily  providing 
repairs  and  parts.  The  physical  conditions  of  the  country 
necessitated  the  use  of  certain  types  of  trucks  and  motors  and 
the  dropping  of  some  of  the  practices  of  other  countries  in 
motor  usage. 

The  rugged,  irregular  coimtry,  with  its  narrow  roads, 
makes  impracticable  the  use  of  trucks  larger  than  three  and 
one-half  tons,  and  "trailers,"  largely  employed  by  the  French, 
German  and  Belgian  armies,  were  found  not  satisfactory. 
What  is  described  as  the  Isotta  Fraschini  heavy  model  armored 
artillery  car  of  Italy  is  considered  one  of  the  most  effective  of 
the  "motor  forts"  or  "land  cruisers"  developed  during  the  war. 

THE  WHEELED  FORT. 

The  wheeled  fort  has  a  battery  of  four  rapid  fire  guns  and 
a  revolving  turret.  Besides  being  full  armored  and  turreted, 
the  car  has  steel  wheels  of  the  disc  type,  and  is  as  formidable  in 
appearance  as  it  has  proven  in  practice.  France  has  a  type  of 
the  completely  enclosed  armored  motorcar  which  affords  its 
crew  unobstructed  view  on  all  sides  through  lattice  panels. 
Even  the  windshield  is  made  on  this  plan.  This  car  also  has  a 
revolving  turret  and  carries  a  5-centimeter  rapid  fibre  gun  and 
possesses  high  speed. 

All  of  the  powers  have  armored  automobiles,  and  in  Ger- 
many, England  and  France  the  exigencies  of  conflict  impelled 
the  Governments  to  practically  commandeer  all  of  the  auto- 
mobiles in  the  countries  for  war  purposes.  Many  of  these  cars 
were  turned  into  armored  cars  of  the  lighter  type,  and  the  num- 
ber of  such  automobiles  in  use  runs  far  into  the  thousands.    The 


WONDERFUL  WAR  WEAPONS.  211 

United  States  has  not  made  much  fuss  about  it,  but  has  had 
armored  cars  in  the  regular  army  for  several  years. 

The  experience  gained  in  the  campaign  in  Europe  indi- 
cates that  the  military  authorities  believe  the  high-powered, 
speedy  cars,  clad  with  armor  of  medium  weight  and  mounting 
one  or  two  machine  guns,  are  the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
^'sheathed"  cars.  They  can  appear  <  suddenly,  maintain  a 
withering  fire  for  a  short  period  and  then  disappear  suddenly. 

As  an  instance  of  what  the  armored  car  accomplishes,  it  is 
Tecited  that  when  the  German  troops  sought  to  invade  the  Bel- 
gian town  of  Alost  a  detachment  was  sent  through  the  streets 
in  armored  cars.  The  houses  were  barricaded  and  the  Germans 
feared  snipers.  There  were  no  snipers  when  the  motorcars 
returned.  More  than  a  thousand  Belgians  were  mowed  down 
in  the  streets  by  the  rapid  fire  guns  of  the  armored  cars. 
IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  AUTOMOBILE. 

Evidence  of  how  greatly  the  automobile  is  appreciated  in 
its  relation  to  the  modern  army  service  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
when  America  entered  the  war  and  began  the  mobihzation  of 
its  forces  and  resources,  the  Quartermaster  at  Chicago  was 
ordered  to  obtain  bids  for  the  delivery  of  35,000  motortrucks  of 
one  and  one-half  tons  capacity  and  35,000  trucks  of  three  tons 
capacity.  Bids  were  also  asked  on  1000  five-passenger  auto- 
mobiles, 1000  runabouts,  1000  automobiles,  in  price  pranging 
from  $1500  to  $2000,  several  hundred  motortrucks  of  half, 
three-quarter  and  one  ton  capacity  and  5000  motorcycles,  and 
the  same  number  of  motorcycles  with  auxiliary  passenger 
capacity,  or  side  cars. 

The  motortruck,  too,  in  modern  warfare  is  a  shoeshop. 
The  care  of  the  feet  is  an  important  matter  in  the  army,  and 
the  men,  besides  being  provided  with  good  footwear,  must  have 
that  footwear  kept  in  serviceable  and  comfortable  condition. 
It  is  some  job  to  keep  the  shoes  of  half  a  million  or  more  men 
in  repair,  and  the  United  States  Quartermaster  Department, 


212  WONDE'RFUL  WAR  WEAPONS. 

in  ccnnection  with  their  mobihzation,  induded  in  its  equipment 
portable  motor-power  machines  to  nail  on  half  soles  for  troops 
in  garrison  and  camj)aign.  Such  a  machine  will  nail  on  a  pair 
of  soles  in  five  minutes.  It  weighs  but  27  X30imds  and  can  be 
transported  with  the  troops  on  a  motorcar,  and  may  be  used 
anywhere  to  keep  the  shoes  in  serviceable  shape  until  the  troops 
can  reach  permanent  camps,  where  new  footwear  can  be 
provided. 
\  FRANCE'S  TRANSPORTATION  RESOURCES. 

At  the  outset  of  the  war  France  is  said  to  have  had  100,000 
passenger  cars,  25,000  motorbuses,  taxicabs  and  motorcycles 
and  10,000  motortrucks  available  for  military  use,  and  was  able 
to  give  the  various  departments  of  her  military  organization 
excellent  transportation  service.  Besides  this,  she  had  squads 
of  automobile  aeroplane  cannon,  and  about  84  12-centimeter 
and  15  5-centimeter  Rimaillio  howitzers  of  the  armored  artillery 
type,  Russia  is  said  to  have  been  weak  in  automobile  equip- 
ment, having  less  than  a  thousand  trucks  in  the  Empire  avail- 
able for  military  use ;  but  tins  number  was  rapidly  increased, 
upw^ard  of  half  a  thousand  having  been  purchased  mthin  a  short 
time. 

Austria  and  Germany  together  are  said  to  have  had  some- 
thing like  1500  trucks  and  about  20^000  passenger  cars  avail- 
able for  army  use.  At  the  start  Germany  alone  had  250 
armored  automobiles,  several  score  of  searchlight  automobiles, 
or  night  scout  cars,  probably  8000  motorcycles  and  more  than 
500  motor-driven  field  guns,  besides  the  big  tractors  used  to 
draw  the  heavy  howitzers.  Aside  from  this,  practically  all  the 
motor  vehicles  in  the  country  were  comjnandeered,  Riiniberiug 
upward  of  75,000. 

¥/hile  they  are  stationary  devieeSj  the  forts  which  were 
stormed  by  the  Germans  at  Liege  and  Antv/erp  are  properly 
part  of  the  military  equipment  used  in  the  war.  These  forts, 
known  as  turret  forts,  are  described  on  preliminary  inspection 


WONDERFUL  WAR  WEAPOIS^S.  213 

as  looking  like  a  row  of  huge  tortoise  or  turtle  shells  rising  a 
few  feet  above  the  ground.  The  shell  is,  however,  a  shell  of 
chilled  steel.  Through  it  the  guns  protrude  and  are  operated 
very  much  like  the  guns  on  a  battleship,  the  turret  revolving. 
Under  the  dome  are  vaults  and  the  compartments  of  concrete, 
containing  the  mechanism  for  moving  the  turrets,  operating 
the  gims,  lifting  the  big  shells  and  handling  the  ammunition 
general^. 

The  fortifications,  which  at  Antwerp  included  nine  in- 
trenched sections,  were  regarded  as  almost  impregnable;  but 
when  they  w^ere  built  there  were  no  such  field  guns  as  the 
famous  42-centimeLer  guns  which  the  Germans  brought  to  the 
atack.  The  forts  them.selves  had  no  guns  larger  than  a  7-inch 
caliber. 

FRANCE'S  ARMORED  FIGHTING  MACHINES. 

In  the  matter  of  movable  guns,  the  French  and  Germans 
both  had  them  liiomited  on  armored  trains.  One  such  train 
used  by  the  French  included  annored  locomotive,  flat  cars  on 
-which  Yfere  mounted  the  guns  in  "barbettes,"  or  steel  turrets, 
and  completely  protected  armored  cars,  used  to  transport 
troops  or  detachments  of  men, 

A  feature  of  the  train  was  the  observation  tower.  It  was 
momited  upon  what  would  ordinarily  be  the  cab  of  the  locomo- 
tive. Such  towers  have  in  one  form  or  another  become  very 
common  in  the  \\  ar.  One  type  resembles  the  motortruck  ladder 
and  platform  devices  used  by  the  man  who  repairs  electric  lights 
and  w^ires  in  our  city  streets.  Another  is  patterned  after  the 
hook  and  ladder  truck  of  the  fire  department.  The  tower,  or 
ladder,  is  raised  after  the  fashion  of  tlie  ladders  in  fighting  a 
fire.  A  couple  of  soldiers  turn  a  crank,  and  the  ladders  are 
raised  to  a  perpendicular  position  and  extended  high  into  the 
air  on  the  sliding  or  telescope  principle. 

Tlie  German  and  Austrian  engineers  also  utilize  observa- 
tion ladders  of  a  less  comxilicated  mechanical  nature.    In  use. 


214  WONDERFUL  WAR  WEAPONS. 

and  with  a  soldier  perched  on  top  of  them,  they  remind  one  of 
the  toy  devices  with  which  we  played  as  children,  using  the 
slotted  acrobats  to  do  wonderful  things  atop  the  "ladders." 
The  ladders  are  carried  in  short  sections,  which  may  be  fastened 
together  in  a  variety  of  ways,  but  a  good  idea  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  ladders  are  used  may  be  obtained  if  you  can  imagine 
a  letter  Y  made  of  ladders  and  turned  upside  down,  with  a 
soldier  standing  on  top  of  it. 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  OBSERVATIONS. 

And  making  observations  is  a  highly  important  matter  in 
modem  warfare;  more  important  than  it  was  in  the  old  days." 
The  long-range  guns  are  aimed  and  their  fire  directed  by  obser- 
vation and  calculation.  The  gunner  cannot  see  the  target  he 
is  required  to  hit.  His  job  is  a  mechanical  one — perhaps  it 
would  be  better  to  say  scientific — for  he  must  read  mathematical 
calculations  and  interpret  them  into  accurate  gun  action.  The 
guns  may  be  on  one  side  of  a  hill  and  the  enemy  on  the  other, 
and  they  may  be  miles  apart,  yet  the  gunner  must  be  able  to 
get  the  range.  His  efforts  are  directed  by  observers  in  aero- 
planes or  balloons,  and  the  range  is  estabhshed  by  calculations, 
so  that  the  gunner  must  be  proficient  in  geometry,  trigo- 
nometry and  mathematics  generally. 

Not  all  the  great  guns  in  the  war  when  it  started  were 
owned  by  the  Germans,  for  England  had  100-ton  Armstrong 
pieces  which  were  capable  of  hurling  a  2,200-pound  projectile; 
but  it  was  the  modification  of  the  design  of  the  large  caliber 
guns  and  the  method  of  mounting  them,  which  permitted  them 
to  be  drawn  wherever  needed,  that  gave  Germany  such  an 
advantage. 

Most  of  the  big  guns  are  in  the  navy — on  the  huge  dread- 
noughts and  baileships — and  therefore  the  fortifications  at 
Helgoland,  which  are  designed  to  resist  the  bombardment  of 
the  heaviest  naval  guns,  must  be  regarded  as  equipment.  Hel- 
goland is  the  protecting  fort  of  Germany's  most  vulnerable 


WONDERFUL  WAR  WEAPONS.  215 

point.  It  is  the  Gibraltar  of  Germany,  and  protects  the 
entrance  to  the  Kiel  Canal  from  the  North  Sea.  If  the  British 
could  get  past  the  fortifications  to  the  Kiel  Canal,  it  could 
establish  a  close-in  blockade  which  would  render  Germany  help- 
less in  a  short  time. 

Helgoland  is  an  island  fortress  in  the  North  Sea,  in  the 
center  of  which  is  a  mortar  battery  moimting  11-inch  and 
16-inch  guns,  capable  of  puncturing  the  decks  of  the  battleship 
which  comes  within  range;  and  these  batteries  have  a  range  of 
from  six  to  eight  miles.  The  batteries  are  ranged  in  tiers,  one 
above  the  other,  to  a  height  of  almost  180  feet  above  the  sea 
level,  the  heavy  guns  and  pieces  being  placed  below  and  the 
lighter  ordnance  in  the  upper  tiers.  The  guns  range  from 
17.T-inch  caliber  down  to  8.2-inch.  Germany  calls  Helgoland 
the  "fortress  impregnable,"  and  the  developments  of  the  war 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  description  fits. 

SMALL  GUNS  OF  VARIED  INTERESTS. 

In  the  smaller  guns  used  in  warfare  there  are  many  varie- 
ties of  interest.  The  United  States  prior  to  and  with  their 
entrance  into  war,  particularly  during  the  period  of  the  trouble 
along  the  Mexican  border,  experimented  with  almost  every 
known  make  of  rapid  fire  machine  and  field  gun,  and  there 
was  for  a  time  much  criticism  because  the  government  did  not 
adopt  for  army  use  the  Lewis  gun,  which  was  adopted  by  some 
of  the  foreign  countries. 

The  German  army  rifle  carried  by  all  the  infantry  is  of  the 
Mauser  type,  first  introduced  in  1888  and  gradually  improved 
imtil  1898.  The  weapon,  because  of  the  adoption  of  the  im- 
proved model  in  1898,  has  come  to  be  known  as  the  ''ninety- 
eight  gun."  It  is  a  quick-firing  weapon,  from  which  20  to  30 
shots  a  minute  may  be  projected  by  the  soldier.  The  gun  is 
universally  used  and  has  a  caliber  of  7.9  millimeters,  which  pro- 
vides for  the  use  of  the  smallest  bullet  which  will  work  suffi- 
cient injury  on  the  enemy  to  make  its  use  profitable* 


216  WONBEEFUL  WAK  WEAPONS. 

Experience  in  the  Russian- Japanese  war  proved  to  the 
military  authorities  that  the  use  of  a  smaller  caliber  was  not 
advisable.  It  was  found  that  the  smaller  bullet  could,  and  in 
many  cases  did,  pass  through  a  man's  body  without  actually 
rendering  him  useless,  and  that  in  a  large  percentage  of  cases — 
more  than  one-third — the  wounded  were  back  with  their  troops 
within  a  few  months. 

In  the  United  States  all  of  the  forces  are  now  provided 
with  standard  arms  or  weapons.  The  army,  the  Marine  Corps 
and  the  organized  militia  of  the  States,  absorbed  into  the  body 
proper  of  national  troops,  have  the  same  firearms — the  same 
service  rifles,  the  same  machine  guns  and  field  guns  and  the 
same  automatic  pistols.  One  kind  of  cartridge — containing  a 
cylindro-conical  bullet  of  copper-nickel,  with  a  lead  core — - 
serves  for  all  rifles  and  for  the  machine  guns  as  well. 
OLD  FLINTLOCK  IN  WAR. 

Many  people,  perhaps,  will  be  surprised  to  learn  that  the 
Mexican  war  was  fought  mainly  with  the  antiquated  flintlock 
muskets.  When  the  trigger  was  pulled  the  flint  came  down 
hard  upon  a  piece  of  steel,  and  the  resulting  spark  was  thrown 
into  the  "pan,"  igniting  a  pinch  of  powder.  The  fire  ran  into 
the  powder  charge  and  the  gun  went  off.  Round  balls  were 
used,  and  the  loading  was  done  with  the  help  of  a  ramrod. 

There  were  already  percussion  rifles  in  those  days,  but 
General  Winfield  Scott,  who  bossed  the  Mexican  war,  declared 
that  he  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  those  new-fangled 
v/eapons.  The  old  smooth-bore  flintlock  was  good  enough  for 
him.  In  truth,  the  percussion  gun  of  that  period  was  not  as 
reliable  as  might  have  been  wished.  The  cap  was  liable  to  get 
wet  and  to  fail  to  go  off,  whereas  a  good  flint  could  be  counted 
upon  to  yield  a  spark  every  time. 

It  was  not  until  1858  that  the  percussion  rifle,  still  a  muz- 
zle-loader, was  generally  used  by  the  United  States  army.  The 
Springfield,  which  was  the  first  breech-loader  (one  cartridge 


V/ONDEEFUL.  WAR  WEAPONS.  2IT 

inserted  at  a  time)  came  along  in  1870.  In  1892  it  was  re- 
placed by  the  fii'st  of  our  magazine  rifles,  the  Krag,  and  simul- 
taneously we  adopted  smokeless  powder,  a  European  invention. 
The  regulation  United  States  service  rifle  is  a  great  im- 
provement on  the  Krag.  It  is  loaded  with  "clips,"  holding  five 
cartridges  each.  The  velocity  of  the  bullet  is  greater,  and  the 
accuracy  and  rapidity  of  fire  are  superior. 

FIGHTING  RANGE  800  YARDS. 

In  the  Mexican  war  the  ordinary  fighting  range,  with  the 
smooth-bore  flintlock,  was  about  250  yards.  In  the  Civil  War, 
with  the  percussion  muzzle-loader,  it  was  850  to  400  yards. 
With  the  new  service  rifle,  the  fighting  range  is  700  to  800 
yards,  and  the  infantryman  is  able  to  fire  at  least  tv/enty  times 
as  mxany  shots  in  a  given  number  of  minutes  as  was  possible 
fifty  years  ago. 

The  field  artilleryman  carries  no  rifle,  but  is  provided  with 
a  45-caiiber  automatic  pistol  and  twenty-one  cartridges.  The 
men  who  compose  the  machine-gun  platoons  have  no  rifles,  but 
each  one  of  them  is  armed  A^dth  the  same  sort  of  service  pistol 
and  a  bolo.  The  latter  is  a  weapon  new  to  our  army,  adopted 
as  a  result  of  military  experience  in  the  Philppines.  It  is  in 
effect  a  m_achete  (a  sugar  cane  chopping  knife) ,  shortened  and 
made  heavier.    At  close  quarters  it  is  a  formidable  weapon. 

The  bolo  embodies  the  best  principles  of  the  various  razor- 
edged  fighting  blades  of  the  Filipinos,  and  was  first  adopted  as 
a  side  arm^  of  the  Marine  Corps  officers.  The  bolo,  which  is 
much  heavier  than  an  ordinary  sword,  measm^es  24  inches  from 
tip  of  handle  to  tip  of  blade-  and  is  forged  from  a  piece  of  file 
steel. 

For  many  years  the  Marine  Corps,  except  upon  dress 
occasions,  has  had  no  cutting  weapon.  It  is  not  strange,  there- 
fore, that  many  of  the  officers  of  the  corps,  while  on  duty  in  the 
Philippines,  adopted  for  use  in  the  field  that  weapon  of  the 
Moro  tribesmen. 


218  WONDEEFUL  WAE  WEAP<OTS. 

The  introduction  of  the  bolo  as  the  field  arm  of  the  Marine 
Corps — the  sword  having  given  place  to  the  pistol  several  years 
ago  in  this  branch  of  the  service— robs  the  time-tried  and  tradi- 
tional Mameluke  saber  of  the  corps  of  the  distinction  of  being 
the  only  cutting  weapon  in  the  equipment  of  this  division  of  the 
Government's  sea  fighters. 

The  Mamelukes  are  inseparably  associated  with  the  mili- 
tary history  of  Egypt,  the  first  country  in  which  a  regular  mili- 
tary organization  was  established,  and  a  country  in  which  the 
fighting  element  was  the  most  honored  and  pow^erful  of  all 
classes.  This  type  of  blade  was  adopted  by  our  Marine  Corps 
in  1825,  and  later  by  the  officers  of  the  Royal  Horse  Artillery 
of  England. 

Until  recently  the  allowance  of  machine  guns  in  our  army 
has  been  two  to  a  regiment,  but  aboard  four  to  six  are  used. 
AUTOMATIC  MACHINE  RIFLES. 

These  guns  are  automatic  machine  rifles,  firing  ordinary 
rifle  cartridges,  which  (in  the  Benet-Mercie  weapon,  a  French 
invention  which  we  have  adopted)  are  supplied  in  brass  clips  of 
thirty.  A  small  part  of  the  gas  generated  by  the  explosion  of 
the  individual  cartridge  operates  the  mechanism,  discharging 
the  bullet,  throwing  out  the  empty  shell  and  making  ready  for 
the  next  shot.  ,  _ 

A  machine  gun  is  designed  to  enable  one  man  to  fire  the 
equivalent  of  a  volley,  or  series  of  volleys,  discharged  by  an 
entire  platoon  (one-third  of  a  company)  of  infantrymen.  As 
at  present  developed,  it  represents  a  step  toward  the  evolution 
of  a  shoulder-rifle  that  will  throw  a  continuous  stream  of 

bullets. 

The  latest  government  rifle— the  weapons  of  the  individual 
soldiers— are  manufactured  at  the  Springfield  (Mass.)  Arm- 
ory, which  is  the  government's  great  small-arms  factory,  and  at 
the  Rock  Island  (111.)  Arsenal— the  facilities  of  the  latter  hav- 
ing hitherto  been  held  in  reserve  for  emergency  purposes.    The 


WONDERFUL  WAR  WEAPONS.  219 

rifle  cartridges  are  turned  out  at  the  Frankford  Arsenal,  in 
Philadelphia,  and  at  private  plants  in  Lowell,  New  Haven, 
Bridgeport  and  Cincinnati.  These  concerns  and  another  near 
St.  Louis  also  make  the  cartridges  for  the  automatic  pistols. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  world  war  we  had  150  batteries  of 
light  field  guns  and  45  batteries  of  heavy  artillery  (four  guns 
to  each  battery),  including  cannon  provided  for  by  Congress, 
and  since  then  delivered.  There  was  an  inadequate  supply  of 
ammimition  for  the  heavy  guns. 

MUNITION  SUPPLY  AUGMENTED. 

The  ammunition  supply  was  immediately  augmented  and 
field  guns  of  various  cahbers  turned  out  as  fast  as  possible, 
including  9-inch  howitzers. 

A  3-inch  field  gun  fires  projectiles  weighing  15  pounds, 
with  a  muzzle  velocity  of  1700  feet  per  second. 

A  4.7-inch  field  gun  fires  projectiles  weighing  60  pounds, 
with  the  same  velocity, 

A  6-inch  howitzer  fires  projectiles  weighing  120  pounds, 
with  a  muzzle  velocity  of  900  feet  per  second. 

The  principal  difference  between  the  field  gun  and  the 
howitzer  is  that  the  latter  can  be  pointed  at  a  high  angle,  to 
assail  infantry  protected  by  intrenchments,  or  for  other  pur- 
poses. 

While  reference  has  been  made  to  siege  guns,  which  were 
used  by  the  Germans  in  their  attacks  on  the  Belgian  and 
French  forts,  the  fact  is  that  the  large  caliber  mortars  and 
howitzers  are  what  wrought  the  havoc. 

The  large  caliber  howitzers  and  mortars  throw  shells  con- 
taining huge  charges  of  explosives,  and  are  more  adaptable  in 
their  application  than  the  ordinary  siege  guns  or  cannons. 

One  novelty  which  had  not  been  used  up  to  the  entrance  of 
the  United  States  into  the  war  is  a  device  invented  by  a  Los 
Angeles  man,  which  makes  a  "periscope  gun"  of  any  ordinary 
service  piece. 


220  WONDERFUL  WAE  WEAPONS. 

In  trench  warfare,  as  developed  abroad,  the  periscope  has 
been  used  by  the  men  in  the  trenches  to  observe  the  movements 
of  the  opposing  forces  and  watch  for  scouts  without  exposing 
themselves  to  the  fire  of  "snipers"  or  sharpshooters,  who  are 
always  looking  for  a  head  or  mark  to  aim  at. 

The  new  device  comprises  two  mirrors  attached  to  the  gun 
by  a  metal  frame  in  such  manner  that  one  mirror  is  above  the 
range  of  vision  and  reflects  the  image  to  be  fired  at  upon  the 
other  mirror  below  the  stock  or  butt  of  the  gun.  The  attach- 
ment enables  the  soldier  sitting  in  a  trench  or  shelter  to  ac- 
curately aim  his  gun  and  conveniently  shoot  while  his  head  is 
kept  below  the  safety  line,  or  top  of  the  parapet,  or  properly 
built  trench. 

THE  TRENCH  PERISCOPE. 

With  this  attachment,  approved  by  the  United  Stales 
Ordnance  Department,  a  rifleman,  from  his  concealed  point  of 
vantage,  can  survey  a  30-foot  field  at  200  yards.  The  attach- 
ment can  be  removed  at  will  and  the  metal  bars  and  parts  can 
be  easily  carried.  The  device  adds  about  one  and  one-half 
pounds  to  the  weight  of  the  gun. 

In  the  same  category  with  the  aeroplane,  the  automobile, 
the  submarine,  the  torpedo,  in  their  effect  upon  the  method  of 
waging  modern  v/arfare  are  the  telephone  and  the  wireless 
telegraph.  There  were  no  telephones  and  no  v/beless  instru- 
ments in  the  days  of  our  own  Civil  War,  and  the  stories  re- 
lated of  the  bravery  and  astuteness  displayed  by  orderlies,  mes- 
sengers and  scouts  of  those  days  will  not  be  repeated. 

Today  the  army  carries  a  complete  telephone  system  and 
Avonderful  wu^eless  apparatus.  The  commander  sits  in  his 
headquarters  and  communicates  with  his  oflicers  in  all  parts  of 
the  field,  reaching  points  miles  distant.  Wires  are  strung 
through  trenches,  along  fences  and  wherever  needed,  and  tele- 
phone "booths"  are  set  up  wherever  it  is  found  necessary. 
Switchboards  are  mounted  on  motor  cars  and  encased  in  armor 


WOKDEEFUL  WAR  WEAPONS,  221 

plate.    The  "repair"  wagons  are  motor  vehicles,  and  lines  cut 
or  destroyed  are  quickly  repaired  or  replaced. 

Aerial  stations  for  the  wireless  are  carried,  and  are  of 
many  varieties.  Some  of  them  are  similar  to  the  observation 
towers  and  ladders.  The  French  army  regulations  provide  for 
wireless  service  between  the  general  staff  headquarters  and  the 
army  corps,  connecting  these  with  the  heavy  cavalry  divisions 
and  Mnes  of  communication.  The  wireless  companies  in  the 
French  army  are  made  up  of  10  officers  and  293  men. 

Nearly  all  of  the  other  nations  have  patterned  thsir  wn^e- 
less  companies  after  the  French.  The  company  carries  802 
miles  of  wu^e  and  cable  and  about  96  sets  of  mstruments.  The 
rate  of  operation  is  more  than  400  words  a  minute.  The  mast 
for  the  aerial  station  is  made  in  sections,  on  the  telescope  plan, 
and  can  be  erected  by  a  trio  of  men  in  a  few  minutes.  The 
whole  outfit  for  a  station  weighs  about  750  pounds  and  the 
range  of  service  is  about  200  miles. 

"KNAPSACK''  STATIONS. 
There  are,  in  addition  to  the  field  stations,  "knapsack" 
stations,  which  are  divided  into  sections  so  that  four  soldiers 
can  carry  an  outfit.  The  sections  weigh  about  20  pounds  each. 
The  small  station  set  up  with  this  apparatus  has  a  range  of 
from  5  to  10  miles  and  in  service  replaces  the  orderlies  and  such 
visual  signs  and  signalling,  as  was  used  before  the  wireless 
came  into  existence.  Such  an  outfit  can  forward  more  informa- 
tion in  a  few  minutes  than  a  whole  squadron  of  orderlies  could 
riding  at  full  speed. 

The  aeroplanes  carrying  a  wireless  outfit  can  communicate 
Vv  ith  the  field  stations,  and  have  rendered  wonderful  service  on 
the  battlefields.  The  cavalry  also  carry  wireless  outfits,  and 
in  the  Alhed  armies  the  second  regiment  of  every  cavalry  bri- 
gade has  a  Mareless  detachment  of  4  troopers,  1  cyclist  and  3 
horses,  besides  a  wagon.  There  is  also  a  division  with  tools  and 
material  for  both  destroying  and  repairing  lines. 


222  WONDERFUL  WAR  WEAPONS. 

The  French  army  also  has  automobile  wireless  stations. 
The  automobile  outfit  is  complete  in  every  particular  and  is  not 
augmented.  It  carries  its  own  crew  and  has  a  traveling  radius 
of  several  hundred  miles.  The  car  containing  the  station  is 
completely  enclosed  and  the  walls  are  deadened  so  that  the 
noise  made  by  the  apparatus  may  not  betray  the  presence  of  the 
station  to  the  enemy  scouts. 

The  practical  application  of  portable  wireless  outfits  to 
military  usage  is  probably  less  than  four  years  old,  but  the 
portables  can  transmit  messages  over  a  radius  of  200  to  250 
miles.  Expressed  in  technical  terms,  the  portable  stations  have 
a  capacity  of  about  200  mile  wave-lengths. 

The  one  weakness  of  the  wireless  is  that  the  enemy  can 
purloin  secrets,  though  adroitness  in  manipulation  can  over- 
come some  of  this  difficulty. 

A  WORD  ABOUT    "HEAVY   ARTILLERY." 

It  would  not  do  to  mention  armaments  and  weapons  with- 
out a  word  about  the  "heavy  artillery"  of  the  commissary  de- 
partment, for  this  branch  of  the  army  service  is  represented  by 
formidable  field  kitchens,  which  are  again  carried  on  trucks  or 
motor  cars.  The  officers'  field  kitchen  follows  the  advance  of 
the  officers  to  the  field  of  action.  Some  of  these  kitchens,  par- 
ticularly those  of  the  Kaiser  and  the  Crown  Prince  in  the  Ger- 
man army,  are  described  as  almost  luxurious.  They  contain 
complete  equipment— range,  bake-oven,  pantry,  ice-box,  china 
closet  and  every  device  needed  for  preparing  a  complete  meal. 

Supplies  are  hurried  after  the  troops  in  motor  trucks  from 
stations  where  the  supplies  are  delivered  by  rail  and  soups  and 
sturdy  meals  are  prepared  which  were  lacking  in  the  cam- 
paigns through  which  the  soldiers  of  the  Civil  War  passed. 
The  pioneer  mobile  military  field  kitchen  which  has  been  the 
subject  of  widespread  comment  was  developed  by  the  German 

army. 

(It  consists  of  a  four-wheeled  vehicle  drawn  by  two  horses. 


WO^DEEFUL  WAR  WEAPONS.  223 

though  motors  have  supplanted  the  horses  in  some  cases.  The 
front  carriage  is  detachable  from  the  rear  and  is  actually  a 
separate  contrivance.  On  the  rear  truck  is  a  200-quart  copper, 
double,  or  jacketed  vat.  Also  a  70-quart  coffee  tank.  Both 
receptacles  have  separate  fireboxes  and  ash  pits.  One  section 
carries  extra  rations  for  the  men,  the  daily  quota  of  provisions, 
extra  rations  for  horses,  folding  canvas  water  pails  and 
utensils. 

The  actual  food  is  cooked  within  the  vat  or  caldron  inside 
the  water  jacket,  so  that  the  heat  does  not  come  in  contact  with 
the  food  direct,  thus  preventing  burning.  The  food  will  cook 
slowly  for  hours  when  once  the  water  is  heated,  and  will  remain 
hot  for  a  long  time.  The  men  can  get  water  in  an  emergency 
and  hot  coffee  is  always  ready  for  the  sentries  and  men  on 
'  guard  duty  to  carry  with  them  at  night.  Of  course  a  bottle 
of  the  thermos  type  is  used  by  these  men  so  that  they  can  have 
hot  coffee  when  on  the  line  of  duty.  The  kitchen  outfits  are 
complete  and  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  rushed  over  rough 
ground  without  spilling  their  contents. 

Electric  flash  lights,  batteries  for  setting  off  dynamite  and 
other  explosives  used  for  blowing  out  trenches  and  other  forti- 
fications, searchhghts,  mirror  signaHng  devices,  illuminating 
bombs,  which  are  shot  high  in  the  air  to  explode  and  illuminate 
the  field  for  hundreds  of  yards,  signal  bombs,  and  many  in- 
genious contraptions  never  dreamed  of  are  part  of  the  army's 
equipment  used  on  the  battlefields  of  the  greatest  war  that  the 
world  has  ever  known. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
THE  WOELD'S  AEMIES. 

The  Efficiejnt  German  Organization — ^The  Landw^hb  and  Landstitem— 
General  Forms  of  Military  Orc^anization — The  Brave  French  Troops— 
The  Picturesque  Italian  Soldiery — The  Peace  and  War  Strength- 
Available    Fighting    Men — ^Foettifications. 

NO  one  scoffs  at  the  military  organization  which  Germany 
has  developed  through  the  years — yes,  almost  centuries 
' — of  moulding  and  training,  for  Germany  has  proved 
herself  efBcient,  even  if  egotistical  and  domineering.  She  built 
up  what  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  was  recognized  as  the 
most  powerful,  most  efScient  and  well  balanced  military  or- 
ganization the  world  has  ever  known.  And  it  was  not  an  army 
in  the  sense  that  America  has  been  taught  to  think  of  armies. 
It  was  a  trained  nation  for  war — a  nation  armed — ^rather  than 
a  small,  compact  fighting  machine. 

The  strength  of  the  German  army  on  October  1,  1913, 
has  been  given  in  fairly  authentic  reports  as  790,788  men  and 
157,916  horses.  Of  the  men  30,258  were  officers  and  2,483 
sanitary  officers.  There  were  104,377  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers and  641,811  common  soldiers.  The  general  divisions  were 
515,216  infantry  and  85,593  cavaky,  126,042  artillery,  and  the 
rest  in  the  general  service,  including  the  commissary  and  quar- 
termasters' departments,  as  these  are  known  in  America.  The 
estimated  army  on  a  war  footing  is  more  than  four  times  tliis 
number  and  approximates  about  4,000,000,  while  the  entire 
available  force  was  given  at  probably  8,000,000. 

The  infantry  is  designated  as  the  main  body  of  the  army. 
The  infantrymen  carry  the  "98"  gun,  already  referred  to, 
which  is  an  improved  Mauser,  and  the  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers and  ambulance  drivers  cany  revolvers.  There  are  several 
classes  of  infantrymen,  a  distinction  being  made  between  the 

224 


THE  WORLD'S  ARMIES.  225 

sharpshooters,  and  some  of  the  others,  variously  known  as 
grenadiers,  musketeers  and  fusileers. 

The  cavalry  is  armed  with  lance,  saber  and  carbine.  There 
are  distmctions  in  this  branch  of  the  service,  too,  among  the 
cavaby  units  being  cuirassiers,  hussars,  uhlans  and  dragoons. 
The  field  artillery  carries  batteries  of  cannon  and  light  howit- 
zer, and  the  drivers  are  armed  with  a  sword  and  revolver. 
The  cannoneers  have  a  short  knife  or  dagger  as  well  as  the 
revolver. 

The  communication  troops  are  what  parallel  the  engineers 
in  the  United  States  army.  They  build  the  roads,  put  up  the 
telegraph  lines  and  telephone  service,  construct  bridges  and 
make  the  travel  possible. 

STRENGTH  OF  GERMAN  ARMY. 
While  the  full  strength  of  the  German  army  is  given  at 
4,000,000  on  a  war  footing,  the  total  availables  from  the  na- 
tion's reserve  is  double  that  sum.  These  forces  are  gathered 
from  three  sources:  the  first  line,  with  an  estimated  strength  of 
1,750,000;  the  Landwehr  1,800,000,  and  the  Landsturm 
4,500,000. 

All  who  enter  the  service  pass  into  the  Landsturm  after 
19  years  and  remain  until  they  are  45.  The  cavalry  service  is 
three  years  with  the  colors  and  four  years  in  the  army  reserve. 
The  horse  artillery  are  subject  to  the  same  service,  while  those 
in  other  branches  serve  two  years  with  the  colors  and  five  with 
the  army  reserve.  The  soldier  passes  from  the  army  reserve 
mto  what  is  described  as  the  Landwehr,  where  artillerymen  and 
cavalrymen  remain  three  years;  those  of  other  branches  of  the 
military  five  years.  The  soldier  passes  from  the  first  division 
or  class  of  Landwehr  to  the  second,  where  he  remains  until  his 
39th  birthday. 

The  Landsturm  of  the  first  class  includes  those  between 
the  ages  of  17  and  39,  who  have  not  reached  the  age  of  service, 
and  those  who  have  not  been  called  into  active  service  because 


226  THE  WORLD'S  ARMIES. 

the  ranks  were  full  and  there  was  no  room  for  them  in  the  reg- 
ular army.  The  second  class  includes  those  who  have  passed 
through  the  other  branches  and  whose  ages  are  between  39  and 

45. 

There  is  a  wide  difference  between  the  military  organiza- 
tions of  the  different  countries.    Whereas  the  United  States 
army  regiment  approximates  1500  men,  the  German  army 
regiment  contains  almost  3000.    In  the  German  army  six  bat- 
talions form  an  infantry  regiment.    Two  regiments  form  a  bri- 
gade, two  brigades  a  division,  and  two  divisions  an  army  corps. 
There  are  10  divisions  composed  of  3  brigades  each,  but  of 
course  the  whole  organization  was  augmented  when  war  broke 
out.    Adding  the  necessary  auxiliary  troops,  viz:  an  artillery 
brigade  of  12  batteries  composed  of  6  guns  each— or  4  in  the 
case  of  the  horse  batteries— a  regiment  of  cavaby  of  4  squad- 
rons, an  engineer  battahon,  sanitary  troops,  etc.,  a  German 
3-brigade  division  at  war  strength  numbers  about  21,000,  and 
an  army  corps— to  which  are  further  attached  4  batteries  of 
howitzers  and  a  battahon  of  rifles— about  43,000  combatants. 
The  cavaby  division  is  composed  of  3  brigades  of  2  regiments 
each  and  2  or  3  batteries  of  horse  artiHery,  a  total  of  24  squad- 
rons and  8  to  12  guns. 

In  a  general  way  it  may  here  be  interpolated  that  the  or- 
ganization of  an  army  is  given  in  the  military  manuals  as 

follows: 

INFANTRY. 

A  squad  is  8  men  under  the  command  of  a  corporal. 

A  section  is  16  men  under  the  command  of  a  sergeant. 

A  platoon  is  from  50  to  75  men  under  a  lieutenant. 

A  company  is  3  platoons,  200  to  250  men,  under  a  captain. 

A  battalion  is  4  or  more  companies  under  a  major. 

A  regiment  is  3  or  more  battalions  under  a  colonel,  or  a 

lieutenant-colonel. 

A  brigade  is  2  or  3  regiments  under  a  brigadier-general. 


THE  WOELD'S  ARMIES,  227 

A  division  is  2  or  more  brigades  under  a  major-general. 

An  army  corps  is  2  or  more  brigades,  supplemented  by 
caralry,  artillery,  engineers,  etc.,  under  a  major-general  or 
lieutenant-general. 

CAVALRY. 

A  section  is  8  men  imder  a  corporal. 

A  platoon  is  36  to  50  men  under  a  lieutenant,  or  iunior 
captain. 

A  troop  is  3  to  4  platoons,  125  to  150  men,  under  a  captain. 
A  squadron  is  3  troops  under  a  senior  captain,  or  a  major. 
A  regiment  is  4  to  6  squadrons  under  a  colonel. 
A  brigade  is  3  regiments  under  a  brigadier-general. 
A  division  is  2  or  3  brigades  under  a  major-general.  * 
ARTILLERY. 

A  battery  is  130  to  180  men,  with  4  to  8  guns,  under  a 
captain. 

A  group  or  battalion  is  3  or  4  batteries  under  a  major. 

A  regiment  is  3  or  4  groups  (battalions)  under  a  colonel. 

men  regiments  are  combined  into  brigades,  brigades  into 
divisions,  and  divisions  into  army  corps,  cavalry,  artillery,  and 
certain  other  auxiliary  troops,  such  as  engineers,  signal  corps 
aeroplane  corps,  etc.,  are  joined  with  them  in  such  proportions 
as  has  been  found  necessary.  Every  unit,  from  the  company 
up,  has  Its  own  supply  and  ammunition  wagons,  field  hospitals 
etc.  ' 

THE  UNITED  STATES  ARMY. 

Prior  to  1915  the  regular  United  States  army  was  a  mere 
police  body  as  compared  with  the  armed  forces  of  other  coun- 
tries. It  was  concededly  highly  efficient,  but  for  the  purpose  of 
entering  mto  conflict  with  such  forces  as  those  presented  by 
Germany,  France  and  some  of  the  other  European  countries  it 
was  admittedly  inadequate. 

The  entire  force  consisted  of  5,004  officers  and  92,658  men. 
The  forces  were  divided  into  15  regiments  of  cavaky  and  765 


228  THE  WOKLDVS  ARMIES. 

officers  and  14,148  Pxien;  6  regiments  of  field  artillery,  with 
252  officers  and  5,513  men;  the  coast  artillery  mth  715  officers 
and  19,019  men,  and  30  regiments  of  infantry,  with  1,530  offi- 
cers and  35,008  men.  The  Philippine  scouts  had  182  officers 
and  5,733  men;  the  Military  Academy  7  officers  and  6,266  men 
and  the  Porto  Rico  regiment  of  infantry  with  32  officers  and 

591  men. 

The  signal  corps  had  106  officers  and  1,472  men,  and  the 
engineer  corps  237  officers  and  1,942  men.  There  were  also 
ahout  6000  recruits  in  the  various  branches  of  the  service  under 

training. 

The  marine  corps,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  had  346  officers  and  9,921  enlisted  men. 
THE  REGULAR  ARMY. 

The  regular  army  was  supplemented  by  the  National 
Guards  of  the  various  States  which  had  7,578  regiments  with 
9,103  commissioned  officers  and  123,105  enlisted  men,  or  a 
total  organization  of  132,208.  The  "reserve  mlHtia/'  which  was 
in  fact  httle  more  than  a  name,  consisted  of  the  availables  for 
service  between  the  ages  of  18  and  45  years,  and  estimated  on 
the  basis  of  population,  numbered  about  20,000,000. 

Before  there  was  any  real  indication  that  the  country 
would  become  actively  involved  in  the  world  war  steps  were 
taken  to  reorganize  and  develop  an  efficient  army,  and  under 
the  Act  which  became  effective  on  July  1, 1916,  and  which  pro- 
vides  for  the  establishment  of  basic  units  for  the  army,  the  War 
Department  orders  and  regulations  fixed  the  basis  of  the  or- 
ganization as  follows: 

Sixty-four  infantry  regiments,  25  cavalry  regiments,^  21 
regiments  of  artillery,  a  coast  army  corps,  the  brigade  division, 
army  corps,  and  army  headquarters,  with  their  detachments 
and  troops.  A  general  staff  corps,  adjutant  general's  depart- 
ment, inspector  general  department,  judge  advocate  general 
department,  quartermaster  corps,  medical  department,  corps 


THE  WORLD'S  ARMIES.  229 

Of  engineers,  and  ordnance  department,  signal  corps,  officers 
ol  the  bui-eau  of  insular  affairs,  militia  bm-eau  and  detached 
omcers. 

The  law  specifies  that  the  total  armed  force  shall  include 
the  regular  army,  volunteer  army,  officers'  reserve  corps  en- 
listed reserve  corps,  and  the  National  Guard  of  the  various 
States,  subject  to  call  for  duty  within  the  borders  of  the  United 
States. 

_  The  reorganization  of  the  army  was  being  effected  at  the 
time  Uncle  Sam  was  called  to  fight  for  humanity,  and  only  an 
approximation  of  the  condition  can  be  made,  for  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  National  Guard  had  been  taken  into  the  regular 
service  mcident  to  the  trouble  with  Mexico,  when  the  Guards- 
men were  summoned  to  the  border  to  protect  the  country  and 
recruiting  was  proceeding  in  aU  branches  of  the  service  to  bring 
all  the  regiments  up  to  a  war  footing. 

UNITS  ON  WAR  FOOTING. 

The  various  units,  on  a  war  footing,  are:  Infantry  regi- 
ment, 1,800  men;  cavalry  regiment,  1,250  men;  field  artillery, 
hght  regiment,  1,150;  field  artillery,  horse  regiment,  1,150- 
field  artillery,  heavy  regiment,  1,240;  field  artillery,  mountain 
regiment,  1,100;  engineers,  pioneer  battalion,  490;  engineers 
pioneer  battalion,  mounted,  270;  engineers,  pontoon  battalion' 
500;  signal  troops,  field  battalion,  160;  signal  troops,  field 
(cavalry)  battalion,  170;  signal  troops,  aero  squadron,  90  men. 
Trains— infantry  division:  ammunition,  260;  supply,  190;  sani- 
tary, 530;  engineer,  10.  Cavalry:  ammunition,  60;  supplv 
220;  sanitary,  300. 

A  division  of  infantry  consists  of  3  brigades  of  infantry, 
1  cavalry  regunent,  1  artillery  brigade,  1  regiment  of  engi- 
neers, 1  field  signal  battalion,  1  aero  squad,  1  ammunition 
train,  1  supply  train,  1  engineer's  train  and  1  sanitary  train, 
and  comprises  approximately  22,000  men  and  7,500  horses  and 
mules,  and  900  vehicles,  including  guns.     The  latter  figures 


230  THE  WOEDD^S  ARMIES. 

are,  however,  changed  by  reason  of  the  introduction  of  motor 
trucks,  and  automobiles,  there  being  a  consequent  reduction  m 
the  number  of  horses  and  mules  and  a  sUght  increase  in  the 

number  of  men. 

A  cavalry  division  consists  of  3  cavaby  brigades,  1  regi- 
ment of  field  artillery,  1  battahon  of  mounted  engineers,  1  field 
signal  battery,  mounted;  1  aero  squadron,  1  ammunition,  1 
supply,  1  engineer  and  1  sanitary  train. 

A  brigade,  in  the  main,  consists  of  three  regiments,  the 
infantry  having  5,500  men,  cavaby  brigade  2,500  and  artillery 

brigade  2,500  men. 

Under  the  reorganization  plan  the  United  States  army 
would  have  about  293,000  in  the  service,  but  with  the  advent  of 
the  country's  entrance  into  the  conflict  of  world  powers  Con- 
gress passed  the  Conscription  bill  authorizing  the  draf tmg,  for 
military  purposes,  all  young  men  between  the  ages  of  21  and  31 
in  the  country. 

MILLIONS  NOT  IN  THE  COUNTRY'S  SERVICE. 

The  registration  of  those  subject  to  call  under  this  bill 
showed  that  there  were  about  11,000,000  men  in  the  country, 
not  in  the  army,  navy  or  supporting  branches,  available.  The 
bill  designed  to  produce,  within  a  year  from  the  time  of  the 
signing  of  the  law  by  President  Wilson,  of  a  national  army  of 
more  than  1,000,000  trained  and  equipped  men,  backed  by  a 
reserve  of  men  and  supplies  and  by  an  additional  500,000 
under  training. 

Meantime  the  State  authorities  were  authorized  to  fill  up 
the  National  Guard  units  and  regiments  to  full  war  strength, 
so  that  with  the  regular  army  there  would  be  a  total  of  622,954 
—293,000  regular  and  329,954  guardsmen,  to  be  taken  over  by 
the  War  Department.  This  was  the  physical  state  of  the  army 
when  the  country  found  it  necessary  to  ship  men  into  France 
to  assist  the  Allies  in  their  fight  against  the  German  and  Aus- 


THE  WORLD'S  AEMIES.  231 

trian  forces,  and  General  Pershing  was  sent  to  command  the 
American  troops. 

The  Upited  States  army  and  aU  of  the  miHtary  branches 
are  armed  with  the  Springfield  magazine  rifle,  which  holds  five 
cartridges.  It  shoots  a  pointed  bullet  of  tin  and  lead  and  is  of 
.30  inch  caliber.  The  Colt  automatic  pistol  is  used  as  the  serv- 
ice weapon  by  ofiicers  and  those  requiring  this  sort  of  arm 
It  IS  a  .45  caliber  pistol  with  a  magazine  holding  seven  cart- 
ridges, which  can  be  fired  successively  by  simply  holding  the 
trigger  back. 

THE  FRENCH  ARMY. 

Military  spirit  in  France  has  had  an  almost  incredible 
resurrection  within  the  past  few  years.  The  increase  in  the 
standmg  army  of  Germany  was  watched  closely,  and  as  new 
units  were  added  to  the  standing  army  of  the  latter  country 
France  retaliated  by  lengthening  the  term  of  military  service 
from  two  to  three  years.  This  accomplished  practically  the 
same  purpose  without  causing  a  ripple  of  excitement,  and  as 
France  determined  to  recover  her  lost  provinces  of  Alsace  and 
Lorraine  her  fight  is  to  the  limit  of  her  endurance. 

There  were,  at  the  outbreak  of  war,  869,403  men  in  the 
JXational  Army  of  France,  which  was  composed  of  the  Metro- 
politan army,  having  a  total  of  753,403  men,  of  the  Colonial 
army,  numbering  116,000  men.  These  figures  do  not  include 
the  personnel  of  the  Gendarmerie,  or  military  police,  which 
numbered  25,000  men. 

MUitary  service  is  compulsory  in  France  and  all  males  be- 
tween the  ages  of  20  and  48  years  must  serve  three  years  in  the 
arniy,  the  only  cause  for  exemption  being  physical  disability. 
Following  the  active  service  the  soldier  passes  to  the  reserve 
lor  11  years,  after  which  he  is  seven  years  in  the  Territorial 
army  and  seven  years  in  the  Territorial  reserve.  The  training 
in  the  active  reserve  consists  of  two  periods  of  training  and 
maneuvers  which  last  for  four  weeks  each,  in  the  Territorial 


232  THE  WOELD'S  ARMIES. 

army  one  period  of  two  weeks,  and  in  the  Territorial  reserve,  no 
fixed  period.     There  are  more  than  2,000  reservists  per  bat- 
talion produced  by  the  length  of  the  reserve  service,  and  when 
the  troops  are  mobihzed  the  active  units  can  be  easily  main- 
tained at  full  war  strength.    The  number  available  in  this  way 
gives  enough  men  for  each  battahon  and  regiment  in  the  field 
with  enough  men  left  over  for  routine  home  guard  work. 
FRENCH  MILITARY  DIVISIONS. 
There  are  two  infantry  regiments,  composed  of  from  six 
to  eight  battalions,  to  the  brigade,  in  the  French  army,  with  two 
brigades  to  a  division  and  two  divisions  to  an  army  corps.    A 
field  artillery  regiment,  consisting  of  nine  batteries  of  four 
guns  each,  is  attached  to  each  division.    With  nine  field  and 
three  howitzer  batteries  and  six  reinforcing  batteries  added 
under  mobilization,  each  corps  on  a  war  footing  has  144  guns. 
There  is  also  added  to  every  army  corps  in  the  field  one  cavalry 
brigade  of  two  regiments,  one  cavaby  battalion,  engineer  com- 
panies and  sanitary  and  service  troops.    The  cavaky  divisions 
are  composed  of  three  brigades  of  two  regiments  each— to- 
gether  with  three  batteries  of  horse  artillery.    There  is  in  an 
army  corps,  when  mobilized,  approximately  33,000  combatants, 
and  in  a  cavalry  division  4,700  men.    An  aeronautical  corps  m 
the  French  army  consists  of  334  aeroplanes  and  14  dirigibles. 
In  the  Reserve  army  at  the  time  of  mobilization  there  were 
two  divisions  in  each  region,  corresponding  to  those  in  the  active 
army.    When  they  were  mobilized  the  36  reserve  divisions  con- 
tained virtually  the  same  organization  and  strength  as  the 
troops  of  the  line.    There  were  a  large  number  of  troops  for 
garrisoning  the  various  fortresses  when  the  regional  regiments, 
engineers  and  foot  artillery  were  utihzed  for  this  work. 

The  Territorial  army  also  consists  of  36  divisions  and 
garrison  troops.  When  the  remaining  men  of  the  Reserve  and 
Territorial  armies  were  summoned  to  the  depots  they  were 
available  to  maintain  the  field  army  at  full  strength. 


THE  WOELD^S  AEMIES.  233 

In  the  French  field  army  there  were  20  army  corps,  a  bri- 
gade consisting  of  14  battalions,  and  10  divisions  of  cavalry; 
when  war  was  declared.  When  this  was  raised  to  its  full  war 
strength  the  active  army  nmnbered  1,009,000  men,  the  re- 
serves and  depots  1,600,000,  the  Territorial  army  818,000, 
and  the  Territorial  Reserve  451,000,  a  grand  total  of  3,878,000 
soldiers.  At  this  critical  time,  therefore,  France  had  at  her 
command  about  5,000,000  trained  men. 

Lebel  magazine  rifles  of  .315  inches  caliber  are  used  by  the 
infantry,  while  the  cavalry  uses  the  Lebel  carbine.  The  field 
piece  is  a  rapid-fire  gun  of  7.5  centimeters,  or  2.95  inches,  of 
the  model  of  1907,  and  is  provided  with  a  shield  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  gunners.  A  howitzer  of  12i  or  15.5  centimeters 
is  the  type  used  by  the  French  army. 

The  French  artillery  is  generally  admitted  to  be  in  a  class 
by  itself,  and  the  commissariat  is  excelled  by  none  other.  The 
infantry  is  most  deceptive  in  appearance,  but  the  ability  of  the 
French  to  march  and  attack  has  never  been  surpassed. 

THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY. 
There  are  1,284,000  men  in  the  Russian  army  in  times  of 
peace,  while  the  war  strength  is  5,962,306.  The  young  man  of 
Russia  is  compelled  to  enter  the  army  at  the  age  of  20  years, 
the  military  service  being  compulsory  and  universal,  terminat- 
ing at  the  age  of  43  years.  The  period  of  service  in  the  active 
army  is  three  years  in  the  case  of  the  infantry  and  artillery, 
and  four  years  in  other  branches  of  the  service.  The  soldier 
then  passes  to  the  reserve,  where  he  serves  for  14  or  15  years, 
during  which  period  he  receives  two  trainings  of  six  weeks 
each.  After  18  years  in  the  active  and  reserve  armies  he  is 
transferred  to  the  Territorial  army  for  five  years.  There  also 
exists  a  modified  system  of  volunteers  for  one  year  who  sup- 
ply the  bulk  of  officers  required  for  the  reserve  upon  mobiliza- 
[tion. 

The  Russian  army  is  divided  into  three  forces,  the  armjr 


234  THE  WORLD'S  ARMIES. 

of  the  European  Russia,  the  army  of  the  Caucasus  and  the 
Asiatic  army.  There  are  1,000  men  in  a  Russian  battalion, 
4  battahons  constituting  a  regiment,  2  regiments  a  brigade 
and  2  brigades  a  division. 

RUSSIAN  FIELD  BATTERIES. 

The  field  batteries  are  composed  of  8  guns,  the  horse  bat- 
teries of  6.    The  ordinary  army  corps  is  made  up  of  2  divisions, 
a  howitzer  division  and  one  battahon  of  sappers,  and  has  a 
fighting  strength  of  approximately  32,000  men.     The  rifle 
brigades  form  separate  organizations  of  8  battalions  with  3 
batteries  attached.     The  Cossacks,  who  hold  their  lands  by^ 
military  tenm^e,  are  liable  to  service  for  life,  and  provide  their 
own  equipment  and  horses.    At  19  their  training  begins ;  at  21i 
they  enter  the  active  regiment  of  their  district;  at  25  they  go 
into  what  is  termed  the  ''second  category"  regiment,  and  at  29 
the  "third  category"  regiment,  followed  by  5  years  in  the  re- 
serve.   After  25  years  of  age,  their  training  is  3  weeks  yearly. 
In  European  Russia  the  field  army  consists  of  the  Imperial 
Guard  and  Grenadier  Corps,  27  line  army  corps  and  20  cav- 
alry divisions;  in  the  Caucasus  of  3  army  corps  and  4  cavalry 
divisions.     The  Asiatic  army  is  composed  of  Russians  with  a 
few  Turkoman  irregular  horse,  and  is  mainly  stationed  in  East 
Siberia.     Since  the  Russian-Japanese  war  these  forces  have 
been  increased  and  re-organized  into  a  strong  army  which,  at 
the  outbreak,  was  capable  of  mobilizing,  together  with  aux- 
iliary troops,  more  than  200,000  men. 

The  small-arm  of  the  infantry  is  the  ''3-line"  rifle  of  the 
1901  model.  It  has  a  magazine  holding  five  cartridges,  a 
caliber  of  .299  inches,  a  muzzle  velocity  of  2,035  foot  seconds, 
and  is  sighted  to  3,000  yards.  The  arm  of  the  cavalry  and 
Cossacks  has  a  barrel  2%  inches  shorter,  but  uses  the  same 
ammunition,  and  is  provided  with  a  bayonet  which  no  other 
mounted  troops  use.     The  field  piece  is  a  Krupp  rapid-fire, 


THE  WORLD^S  ARMIES.  235 

shielded  gun,  of  the  1902  model,  with  a  muzzle  velocity  of 
1,950  foot  seconds,  the  shell  weighing  13%  pounds, 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARIAN   ARMY. 

There  are  472,716  men  in  the  army  of  Austria- Hungary 
during  times  of  peace,  with  a  war  strength  of  1,360,000  sol- 
diers. Military  service  is  uuniversal  and  compulsory,  begin- 
ning at  the  age  of  19  years,  and  ending  at  the  age  of  43  years. 
The  term  of  service  in  the  common  or  active  arm  of  the  serv- 
ice is  for  two  years  in  the  case  of  the  infantry  and  three  years 
in  the  cavalry  and  horse  artillery. 

There  is  a  Landwehr,  or  first  reserve,  in  which  the  term 
of  service  is  10  years  in  the  infantry,  and  seven  for  the  cavalry 
or  horse  artillery,  which  service  is  followed  by  that  in  the  Land- 
sturm,  or  second  reserve,  in  which  the  soldier  serves  until  his 
forty-second  birthday.  Hungary  possesses  a  separate  and  dis- 
tinct Landwehr  and  Landstm^m,  which  constitute  the  Hun- 
garian National  army.  There  is  also  a  supplementary  reserve 
intended  to  maintain  the  units  of  the  common  army  at  full 
strength. 

The  Empire  is  divided  into  16  army  corps  districts,  each 
presumed  to  furnish  a  complete  army  corps  of  two  divisions  to 
the  active  army.  Every  infantry  division  is  composed  of  two 
brigades  of  8  battalions  each,  1  artillery  brigade  and  10  bat- 
teries of  six  guns,  a  regiment  of  cavalry,  and  a  rifle  battahon. 
The  army  corps  also  contains  a  regiment  of  field  artillery  or 
howitzers,  a  pioneer  battalion  and  a  pontoon  company,  and 
numbers  about  34,000  combatants. 

There  are  6  permanent  cavalry  divisions,  each  made  up  of 
2  brigades— 24  squadrons,  3  batteries  of  horse  artillery  and  a 
machine-gun  detachment  numbering  about  4,000  men.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  war  strength  is,  active  army,  1,360,000; 
Austrian  Landwehr,  240,000;  Hungarian  Landwehr,  220,000; 
Landsturm,  2,000,000  and  reserve  of  500,000,  or  a  grand  total 
of  4,300,000. 


236  THE  WORLD'S  ARMIES. 

The  infantry  carries  the  Mannlicher  magazine  rifle,  .315- 
cahber  and  a  cavalry  carbine  of  the  same  make.  The  field  gun 
is  a  Krupp  which  uses  a  14%-pound  shrapnel  and  the  field 
howitzer  is  a  10.5  centimeter  piece  which  fires  a  30-pound  shell. 
The  Hungarian  cavalry  is  accounted  fine,  but  the  main  force 
is  not  regarded  as  efficient  as  the  German  or  French. 
THE  ITALIAN  ARMY. 

The  army  of  Italy  on  a  peace  footing  is  only  about  250,- 
860  men,  exclusive  of  the  troops  in  Africa,  but  the  country  is 
able  to  mobilize  a  large  force,  and  some  of  its  branches  of  serv- 
ice are  the  most  efficient  in  the  world.  Service  is  compulsory 
and  general,  beginning  at  the  age  of  20  years.  After  two 
years  in  the  standing  army  there  are  six  years  in  the  reserve, 
four  years  in  what  is  known  as  the  mobile  militia  and  seven 
years  in  the  territorial  militia. 

There  is  compulsory  training  in  both  the  reserve  and  the 
territorial  militia,  ranging  from  two  weeks  to  six  weeks.  In 
organization  each  division  of  the  army  consists  of  2  brigades 
composed  of  2  regiments,  comprising  3  battalions,  together 
with  a  regiment  of  field  artillery,  with  5  batteries.  The  division 
has  a  war  strength  of  14,156  officers  and  men  and  30  guns. 
The  cavalry  division  comprises  2  brigades  of  4  regiments  and 
2  horse  batteries.  Each  army  corps  has  two  divisions  in  which 
are  included  a  regiment  of  field  artillery,  3  heavy  batteries,  a 
regiment  of  cavalry  and  one  of  light  infantry. 

There  is  available  for  army  service  the  military  police^ 
known  as  the  Carabinieri,  besides  the  aeronautical  corps,  with 
half  a  dozen  or  more  companies,  30  aeroplanes  and  a  dozen 
airships.  There  are  also  the  frontier  troops  organized  for  de- 
fense of  the  mountains,  and  which  troops  waged  heroic  and 
picturesque  warfare  in  the  mountain  passes.  There  are  in  these 
troops  8  regiments  of  Alpine  infantry,  comprising  26  bat- 
talions, and  2  regiments  of  36  mountain  batteries. 

The  army  strength  approximates  2,600,000,  made  up  of 


THE  WORLD'S  AEMIES.  237 

700,000  active  army,  400,000  mobile  militia,  which  is  the  sec- 
ond line  of  defense,  and  the  territorial  militia,  about  1,500,000. 
The  infantry  is  armed  with  a  magazine  rifle  of  6.5  millimeters 
caliber  known  as  the  Mannlicher  Carcano,  but  up  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  war  the  territorials  used  a  different  type. 

GREAT  BRITAIN'S  ARMY. 

The  military  establishment  of  Great  Britain  consists  of 
the  Regular  army  and  the  Territorial  army,  aside  from  the 
Indian  army  and  the  local  forces  in  the  various  colonies.  These 
armies  are  recruited  from  youth  between  the  ages  of  18  and  25 
years,  who  are  recruited  by  voluntary  enlistment.  The  enlist- 
ment period  is  for  12  years,  although  it  can  be  prolonged  under 
certain  circumstances  to  21  years. 

Three  to  nine  years  is  the  period  with  the  colors,  and  the 
remainder  of  the  enlistment  is  with  the  Army  Reserve.  Many 
men  elect  to  serve  seven  years  with  the  colors  and  five  with  the 
reserve.  Recruits  are  subjected  to  five  months'  training,  and 
each  year  are  called  out  for  six  v/eeks,  supplemented  by  six 
days'  musketry  practice  for  the  infantry. 

The  Home  army  consists  of  9,740  officers  and  172,610 
men,  the  Ai^my  Reserve  of  147,000  and  the  Special  Reserve  of 
80,120,  and  the  Territorial  army  of  313,485,  a  total  of  724,955 
men.  Raised  to  war  strength,  these  forces  would  number  29,- 
330  officers,  772,000  men  and  2,072  guns,  the  batteries  being  of 
six  guns,  except  the  heavy  batteries  and  those  of  the  Territorial 
army,  wliich  have  four.  Dm-ing  the  Boer  War  England  put 
more  than  1,000,000  men  in  the  field. 

The  United  Kingdom  is  divided  into  seven  "conmiands," 
and  the  London  district,  all  of  which  include  from  two  to  three 
territorial  divisions,  and  one  to  foiu:  tenitorial  cavalry  bri- 
gades, in  addition  to  detachments  of  varying  size  from  the 
Regular  army.  Two  nearly  full  divisions  are  stationed  at  Al- 
dershot  and  in  Ireland,  one  complete  division  in  the  Southern 


238  THE  WORLD^S  ARMIES. 

and  one  in  the  Eastern  "command."  There  are  also  six  aero- 
plane squadrons,  each  with  18  aeroplanes. 

The  Lee-Enfield  rifle,  caliber  .303,  is  the  arm  of  the  in- 
fantry and  cavalry.  In  the  Regular  army  the  field  artillery 
has  an  18-pounder  Armstrong  gim,  the  horse  artillery  a  13- 
pounder,  the  field  howitzers  are  4jO-pounders,  and  the  heavy 
batteries  are  armed  with  60-pounders. 

The  Territorial  army  was  organized  along  the  lines  of  the 
American  militia,  and  could  scarcely  be  expected  to  distinguish 
itself  when  pitted  against  the  German  regulars. 

BELGIAN  ARMY  PEACE  FOOTING.    * 

The  Belgian  army  peace  footmg  is  3542  officers  and 
^44,061  men,  with  a  war  strength  estimated  at  from  300,000  to 
350,000.  The  infantry  is  armed  with  the  Mauser  rifle,  the  artil- 
lery with  a  shielded  Krupp  quick-fire  piece  of  7. 5 -centimeter 
caliber. 

In  1913  the  Netherlands  had  in  its  standing  army  1,543 
officers  and  21,412  men  and  152  guns.  On  a  war  footing  it 
could  probably  be  raised  to  270,000  men.  The  small  arm  is  the 
Mannlicher  rifle  and  carbine,  the  field  gun  is  the  same  as  that 
of  Belgium. 

Servia  has  10  divisions,  divided  into  4  army  corps.  The 
peace  footing  is  160,000,  and  the  war  strength  about  380,000. 
The  rifle  is  the  Mauser  model  of  1899,  and  the  field  piece  a 
quick-firing  gun  of  the  French  Schneider-Canet  system. 

Bulgaria  has  a  peace  army  of  about  3,900  officers  and 
56,000  men.  It  is  armed  with  the  Mannlicher  magazine  rifle, 
the  Mannlicher  carbine,  the  Schneider  quick-fire  gun  and  a 
light  Krupp  for  the  mountain  batteries.  On  a  war  footing  the 
country  musters  4  army  corps  and  550,000  men. 

Roumania's  army  is  about  5,460  officers  and  98,000  men. 
On  a  war  footing  it  has  5  army  corps  and  580,000  men.  The 
infantry  uses  the  Mannlicher  magazine  rifle  and  the  cavalry 


THE  WOELD^S  ARMIES.  239 

tVe  Mannlicher  carbine.  The  field  and  horse  batteries  are  armed 
iwith  the  Krupp  quick-fire  gun  of  the  model  of  1903. 

In  1912  Greece  had  a  peace  estabhshment  of  1,952  officers 
and  23,268  men,  but  the  recent  war  has  caused  her  to  augment 
them  to  3  army  corps,  and  her  war  footing  is  not  far  from 
250,000  men.  The  infantry  is  armed  with  the  Mannhcher- 
Schonauer  rifle  of  the  1903  model  and  the  field  artillery  with 
Schneider-Canet  quick-fire  guns. 

Japan  has  a  peace  strength  of  250,000  men,  with  a  reserve 
of  1,250,000,  and  a  total  war  strength  of  1,500,000  men,  out  of 
a  total  available  force  capable  of  fighting  of  approximately 
8,239,372  men. 

SPAIN'S  STANDING  ARMY. 

The  standing  army  of  Spain  is  132,000  men.  The  reserves 
are  estimated  at  1,050,000,  and  the  total  war  strength  at  1,182,- 
000.    The  total  available  unorganized  force  is  2,889,197  men. 

The  army  of  Denmark  on  a  peace  footing  is  13,725  men, 
with  a  reserve  of  71,609.  The  total  war  strength  is  a  Uttle  more 
than  85,000  men,  and  the  total  fighting  population  is  approxi- 
mately 470,000. 

Sweden  has  a  peace  strength  in  excess  of  75,000  men,  and 
a  reserve  of  more  than  500,000,  giving  an  estimated  war 
strength  of  600,000  men.  The  total  available  unorganized 
force  is  about  500,000. 

Norway  has  a  standing  army  a  little  larger  than  that  of 
Denmark — about  18,000  men — with  90,000  reserves,  giving  a 
total  war  strength  of  about  110,000  men.  The  unorganized 
force  available  is  about  360,000  men. 

Portugal  has  a  peace  strength  of  30,000  men,  with  a  re- 
serve of  225,000,  making  a  total  war  strength  of  more  than 
one-quarter  of  a  million.  The  unorganized  fighting  material 
is  more  than  800,000. 

Tin-key,  which  reorganized  its  forces  within  recent  years, 
has  a  peace  strength  of  210,000  men,  about  800,000  reserves. 


240  THE  WORLD'S  ARMIES. 


giving  a  war  strength  of  over  a  million,  and  has  a  total  avail- 
able unorganized  force  to  call  upon  of  more  than  3,000,00^. 

The  little  army  of  Montenegro  is  a  permanent  body  of 
about  35,000  men.  There  are  no  trained  reserve  forces,  but 
there  is  an  available  fighting  population  of  68,000,  outside  of 
the  army,  to  call  upon. 

CHINA'S  MILITARY  RESOURCES. 

Recent  events  throw  some  doubt  on  the  figures  regarding 
China's  military  resources,  but  the  last  available  figures  cred- 
ited the  great  Repubhc  of  the  East  with  a  force  of  400,000 
men,  augmented  by  300,000  reserves.  With  this  total  war 
strength  of  700,000  soldiers,  estimates  of  the  available  unor- 
ganized fighting  material  reaches  the  stupendous  figure  of 
63,000,000. 

Brazil  has  a  peace  strength  of  33,000,  with  more  than 
500,000  reserves,  with  more  than  4,000,000  unorganized  avail- 
able material. 

As  relating  to  the  armed  strength  of  the  nations  abroad, 
some  reference  to  the  system  of  fortifications  which  protect  the 
various  countries  is  interesting  at  this  point.  Following  years 
— in  fact,  centuries — of  study.  Central  Europe  has  been 
strongly  fortified  with  a  system  of  embattlements  which  have 
reached  the  limits  of  human  ingenuity. 

In  the  east  of  France,  along  the  frontier  where  France, 
Switzerland  and  Germany  meet,  there  are  the  first-class  fort- 
resses of  Belfort,  Epinal,  Toul  and  Verdun  in  the  first  line, 
reinforced  by  Besancon,  Dijon,  Langres,  Rheims,  La  Fere  and 
Maubeuge  in  the  second  line,  with  smaller  fortifications  close 
to  the  German  frontier  at  Remirement,  Luneville,  Nancy  and 
other  points.  Along  the  Italian  frontier  the  f oi-tresses  are  situ- 
ated at  Grenoble,  Briancon  and  Nice,  with  Lyons  in  the  rear. 
There  are  strong  forts  at  all  naval  harbors,  the  defense  of 
Paris  consisting  of  9T  bastions,  17  old  forts  and  38  forts  of  an 


THE  WORLD^S  ARMIES.  241 

advanced  type,  the  whole  forming  entrenched  camps  at  Ver- 
sailles and  St.  Denis. 

On  that  line  of  the  German  frontier  which  faces  France 
there  are  the  fortresses  of  Neu-Breisach,  Strassburg,  Metz  and 
Diedenhofen,  in  the  first  line,  with  Rastatt,  Bitsch  and  Saar- 
louis  in  the  second  line,  and  Germershein  in  the  rear.  Situated 
opposite  Luxemburg  is  Mainz,  with  Coblentz  and  Cologne 
.opposite  Belgium  and  Wesel  opposite  Holland. 

All  along  the  northern  coast,  from  Wilhelmshafen  to 
Memmel,  the  German  coast  is  strongly  fortified.  Memmel  is 
the  pivot  point  of  the  northern  and  eastern  frontier,  the  latter 
frontier  being  protected  by  Konigsberg  and  AUenstein,  of  the 
first  line,  and  Danzig,  Dirschau,  Graudenz,  Thorn  and  the  Vis- 
tula Passages,  of  the  second  line.  South  of  this  point  are 
Posen,  Glogau  and  Breslau,  which  face  Poland,  while  begin- 
ning at  Neisse  the  strong  defense  against  Austria  consists  of 
fortifications  at  Glatz,  Ingolstadt  and  Ulm,  the  approaches  to 
Berlin  being  guarded  by  Magdeburg,  Spandau  and  Kustrin. 
POLISH  QUADRILATERAL. 

Along  the  line  of  the  Russian  frontier  which  guard  that 
coimtry  from  attacks  by  the  Germans  are  the  fortresses  of 
Libau,  on  the  Baltic ;  Kovna,  Ossovets  and  Ust-Dvinsk,  in  the 
Vilna  district,  and  in  Poland  there  are  situated  Novo-Geor- 
gievsk,  Warsaw  and  Ivangorod,  on  the  Vistula,  and  Brest- 
litovsk,  on  the  Bug — four  strongholds  known  as  the  Polish 
Quadrilateral.  Guarding  Petrograd  are  the  smaller  fortifica- 
tions of  Kronstadt  and  Viborg,  with  Sweaborg  midway  down 
the  Gulf  of  Finland  near  Helsingfors.  Sebastopol  and  Kertch, 
in  the  Crimea,  and  Otchokov,  near  Odessa,  are  the  fortifications 
which  guard  the  Black  Sea. 

Along  the  Austrian  frontier  are  the  strong  embattlements 
of  Cracow  and  Przemysl,  on  the  road  to  Lemberg  in  Gahcia. 
These  forts  face  Poland.  In  Hungary  there  are  Gyula-Feh- 
ervar  and  Arad,  on  the  Maros  River,  and  which  guard  the 


242  THE  WORLD^S  ARMIES. 

approach  from  the  angle  of  Roumania.  On  her  frontier  facing 
Servia  there  are  Alt-Orsova  and  Peterwardein,  on  the  Danube, 
and  Sarajevo,  in  Bosnia,  with  Temesvar  and  Komorn  blocking 
the  approach  to  Vienna  from  the  southeast.  On  the  Adriatic 
are  Cattaro,  on  the  edge  of  Montenegro,  and  the  naval  arsenals 
of  Pola  and  Trieste.  All  the  Alpine  passes  of  the  Tyrol  are 
fortified,  but  neither  Vienna  nor  Budapest  has  any  defenses. 
The  fortifications  of  Italy,  aside  from  those  on  her  coasts, 
extend  in  a  line  from  Venice,  through  Verona,  Mantua  and 
Piacenza  to  Alessandria  and  Casale,  which  face  the  French 
frontier. 


CHAPTER  XIIL 
THE  WOELD'S  NAVIES. 

Geemant^s  Sea  Strength — Gbeat  Britain's  Immense  War  Fleet — Immense 
Fighting  Craft — The  United  States'  New  Battle  Cruisers — The  Fastest 
AND  Biggest  Ocean  Fighting  Ships — The  Picturesque  Marines:  the 
Soldiers  op  the  Sea. 

JUST  as  Germany  at  the  outset  of  the  war  had  the  most 
efficient  and,  broadly  speaking,  the  greatest  army  in  the 

world,  so  England  had  the  greatest  navy  in  the  world. 
As  a  matter  of  fact.  Great  Britain's  domination  of  the  seas  was 
very  largely  responsible  for  the  development  of  the  super- 
submarine  by  Germany,  and  the  putting  into  effect  of  the  sub- 
marine warfare  which  proved  so  disastrous  to  the  Allies.  This 
for  the  reason  that  Germany,  having  sought  for  means  to  offset 
Great  Britain's  power  and  control  of  the  seas,  turned  to  the 
underseas  craft. 

Up  to  the  accession  of  Emperor  William  II — ^the  Kaiser 
— Germany's  navy  was  little  more  than  a  joke.  In  1848  the 
National  Parliament  voted  six  million  thalers  for  the  creation 
of  a  fleet,  and  some  boats  were  constructed.  But  the  attempts 
to  weld  Germany,  then  little  more  than  a  federation,  into  a 
nation  having  failed,  the  fleet  was  put  up  at  auction,  and  actu- 
ally sold  in  1852.  Prussia,  a  separate  state,  had  started  a  fleet 
of  her  own  and  pm'chased  the  German  boats. 

This  fleet,  just  before  the  American  Civil  War,  consisted 
of  four  cruisers,  carrying  28  cannon,  and  one  cruiser  having  17 
cannon,  besides  which  there  were  21  "cannon  boats,"  carrying 
two  and  three  cannons  each.  The  Prussian  fleet  merged  into 
the  North  German  Confederation  in  1867,  and  in  tm^n  became 
part  of  the  fleet  of  the  new  German  Empire  in  1871. 

In  the  war  with  France  the  German  fleet  played  no  part. 
There  were  one  or  two  clashes  between  French  and  German 
small  boats,  but  that  was  all.    Even  the  successful  outcome  of 

243  171 


244  THE   WORLD'S  NAVIES. 

the  war  did  not  inspire  Germany  to  build  up  a  navy.  Plans 
for  the  greater  navy  were  first  outlined  about  1882,  but  for  a 
period  of  seven  years  not  a  battleship  was  built,  concentration 
being  placed  upon  the  torpedo  boat.  The  idea  of  developing 
the  torpedo  boat  fleet  belong  to  the  present  Grand  Admiral 
von  Tirpitz,  then  a  young  officer.  The  fleet  became  the  best  in 
the  world,  but  its  usefulness  was  soon  checked  by  the  new 
inventions,  searchlights,  gatling  guns,  etc. 

Germany's  fleet  legislation  of  1898  for  the  first  time 
looked  ahead  and  established  rules  for  future  building.  The 
Spanish- American  and  the  Boer  wars  disquieted  Germany,  and 
about  1900  the  fleet  was  doubled  by  legislation,  iln  1906  the 
campaign  of  submarines,  torpedo  boats  and  greater  battleships 
began.  Part  of  the  program  required  that  12  torpedo  boats  be 
built  each  year.  Additional  legislation  for  the  construction  of 
cruisers  and  battleships  was  effected  in  1908,  and  in  1912,  until 
at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  Germany  had  38  ships  of  the  line, 
14!  armored  cruisers,  38  protected  cruisers,  224  torpedo  boats 
and  30  submarines.  There  were  no  torpedo-boat  destroyers, 
the  small  cruisers  taking  their  places.  The  naval  organization 
contained  73,000  officers  and  men.  The  largest  boats  are  the 
dreadnoughts,  which  are  divided  into  several  classes.  One  of 
the  last  of  these  built  by  Germany  was  the  Derfflinger,  which 
had  a  displacement  of  28,000  tons. 

The  personnel  of  the  German  navy  prior  to  the  war  was 
79,197  officers  and  men. 

THE  BRITISH  NAVY. 
Because  of  the  fact  that  the  territory  of  Great  Britain  is 
scattered  over  the  face  of  the  globe  and  that  it  is  necessary  to 
use  the  highways  of  the  sea  for  reaching  her  various  posses- 
sions, the  navy  of  that  country  is  undoubtedly  the  greatest 
collection  of  fighting  ships  ever  gathered  together  under  one 


THE  WORLD'S  NAVIES.  245 

In  order  to  take  care  of  her  population  of  15625,000,000 
she  has  gathered  together  a  navy  consisting  of  60  modern  bat- 
tleships, 9  battle  cruisers,  34  armored  cruisers,  17  heavy  pro- 
tected cruisers,  70  light  cruisers,  232  destroj^ers,  59  torpedo 
boats  of  the  latest  type,  75  submarines,  together  with  50  sea- 
going auxiliaries  of  the  fleet,  which  are  used  as  mother  ships  to 
destroyers,  mine-layers,  distilling  ships,  oil  ships,  repair  and 
hospital  ships,  with  145,000  officers  and  men. 

The  first  group,  completed  between  1895  and  1898,  in- 
cludes six  battleships,  all  of  14,900  tons  displacement,  12,000 
horsepower  and  2,000  tons  coal  capacity.  The  speed  is  17.5 
knots,  the  armor  belt  being  from  10  to  14  inches  at  the  big  guns 
and  with  a  mean  armor  belt  of  9  inches.  The  armament  con- 
sists of  4  12-inch  guns,  12  6-inch  rapid  fire,  16  3-inch  rapid  fire, 
12  3-pounder  rapid  fire,  2  light  rapid  fire  and  2  machine  guns. 
They  have  one  torpedo  tube  above  water  and  two  under  water. 
MONSTERS  OF  THE  SEA. 

A  later  group  of  six  was  built  in  1900  and  1902.  These 
monsters  of  the  sea  are  of  12,950  tons  displacement,  13,500 
horsepower  and  have  2,300  tons  coal  capacity.  They  have  a 
speed  of  18.25  knots,  6  inches  of  armor  belt  and  from  8  to  12 
inches  protection  for  her  big  gims.  The  armament  consists  of 
4  12-inch  rapid  fire  guns,  12  6-inch  rapid  fire,  10  3-inch  rapid 
fire  and  2  light  rapid  fire  and  2  machine  guns.  There  are  four 
torpedo  tubes. 

Gradually  England  developed  larger  and  larger  vessels 
from  this  point,  increasing  the  displacement  in  each  group 
from  16,350  tons  in  1906  to  20,000  in  1911,  and  finally  to 
255TOO,  when  the  Queen  Elizabeth  and  Warspite  v/ere  com- 
pleted in  1915.  These  boats — England's  superdreadnoughts — 
are  of  58,000  horsepower  (turbine),  4,000  tons  oil  capacity. 
They  have  a  speed  of  25  knots,  13,5  inches  of  armor  belt  and 
from  8  to  13.5  inches  protection  for  the  big  guns.  The  arma- 
ment consists  of  8  15-ineh,  16  6-inch  and  12i  3-inch  rapid  fire 


246  THE  WORLD'S  NAVIES. 

guns.     They  have  five  torpedo  tubes.     There  were  150,609 

officers  and  men  in  the  navy  when  England  entered  the  war. 

THE  FRENCH  NAVY. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war  the  French  navy  ranked 
fourth  among  the  navies  of  the  world.  She  had  18  battleships 
of  the  older  types,  and  which  ranged  in  date  of  launching  from 
1894  to  1909,  There  were  building  at  that  time  eight  ships  of 
about  23,095  tons  displacement.  Although  France  had  no 
battle  cruisers,  she  had  19  armored  cruisers.  The  heavier  of 
these  ships  had  a  designed  speed  of  23  knots,  and  carried  from 
2100  to  2300  tons  of  coal.  Their  main  batteries  consisted  of 
2  7.6-inch  rapid  fire  and  8  6.4-inch  rapid  fire  guns. 

Two  protected  cruisers,  the  D'Entrecasteaux  and  the 
Guichen,  and  10  light  cruisers  of  no  fighting  importance  com- 
pleted the  list  of  French  ships. 

France  was,  however,  strong,  so  far  as  numbers  go,  in 
destroyers,  torpedo  boats  and  submarines,  there  being  84  de- 
stroyers, with  displacements  of  276  to  804  tons  and  speeds  of 
28  and  31  knots.  She  possessed  135  torpedo  boats  and  78  sub- 
marines, but  many  of  these  were  of  small  size.  One  hundred 
and  one  of  her  torpedo  boats  had  displacements  of  about  95 
tons,  and  20  of  the  submarines  had  displacements  of  67  tons. 

Of  the  submarines,  there  were  33  which  had  a  displace- 
ment of  390  tons,  2  of  410  tons,  6  of  550  tons,  2  of  785  tons 
and  7  of  830  tons.  This  displacement,  which  was  surface,  is 
usually  70  pei^  cent  of  the  submerged.  The  larger  submarines 
carry  from  six  to  eight  torpedo  tubes.  In  the  early  part  of 
1916  the  French  Government  had  12  submarines  building, 
these  latter  having  surface  displacement  of  520  tons  and  having 
Diesel  motors  of  2000  horsepower.  The  speed  of  these  sub- 
marines is  17%  knots  on  the  surface  and  8  knots  submerged. 

Attached  to  the  French  fleet  are  16  auxiliaries,  used  as 
mine-layers,  submarine  destroyers  and  aeroplane  mother  ships, 
of  from  300  to  7,898  tons. 


THE  WOKLD^S  NAVIES.  247 

There  were  61,2410  officers  and  men  in  the  navy  of  France 
mhen  war  was  declared. 

THE  RUSSIAN  NAVY, 

With  the  ending  of  the  Russo-Japanese  war  the  Russian 
navy  was  given  an  overhauling.  There  were  but  three  of  the 
old  battleships  of  the  Russian  navy  left  after  this  fateful  strug- 
gle, these  being  the  Tri  Sviatitelia,  the  Panteleimon  and  the 
Czarevitch.  The  Russian  Government  labored  diligently  to 
build  up  her  navy,  and  is  still  doing  her  utmost  to  readjust  that 
branch  of  her  service. 

With  the  outbreak  of  the  great  war  she  had  six  armored 
cruisers,  none  of  which  was  in  the  Black  Sea.  These  averaged 
in  tonnage  from  7,900  to  15,170  tons  displacement.  There 
were  eight  cruisers  of  from  3,100  to  6,700  tons,  and  of  no  fight- 
ing value  whatever. 

Russia  had  but  14  torpedo  boats,  all  small  and  of  little 
value.  She  had  a  fairly  good  fleet  of  destroyers  and  subma- 
rines, having  91  of  the  former  and  55  submarines. 

There  were  36,000  officers  and  men  in  the  service  when 
hostilities  opened. 

THE  AUSTRIAN  NAVY. 

When  the  war  was  declared  Austria,  Germany's  sup- 
porter, had  nine  battleships  ready.  These  were  completed 
since  1905,  as  follows;  In  1906  and  1907  there  were  finished 
three  battleships  which  displaced  10,433  tons,  had  14,000  horse- 
power and  1315  tons  coal  capacity.  They  had  a  speed  of  19.25 
knots,  6  to  8.25  inches  of  side  armor  and  9.5  inches  protection 
for  the  big  guns.  The  armam-ent  consisted  of  4  9.4-inch,  12 
7.6-inch  rapid  fire,  14  3-inch  rapid  fire  and  16  smaller  guns. 
They  had  two  torpedo  tubes. 

In  1910  three  other  ships  were  added  to  the  navy.  These 
were  slightly  larger  than  those  described  just  above,  having  a 
displacement  of  14,268  tons,  with  engines  of  20,000  horse- 
power.   They  had  three  torpedo  tubes. 


248  THE  WOELD^S  NAVIES. 

Three  ships  of  20,000  tons  displacement  were  launched  in 
1912  and  1913.  They  had  a  speed  of  20  knots  and  four  tor- 
pedo tubes.  Three  other  battleships  had  been  built  up  until 
1906,  and  these,  together  with  10  light  cruisers,  were  in  the 
Austrian  navy  at  the  breaking  out  of  hostilities. 

The  torpedo  boat  destroyers,  of  which  there  were  18,  must 
not  be  forgotten.  Twelve  of  these  were  of  384  tons,  capable 
of  making  28^  knots.  These  carried  4  12-pounders  and  2 
21-inch  torpedo  tubes.    They  were  built  for  oil  fuel. 

There  were  six  submarines  in  this  navy,  these  being  of 
moderate  size,  ranging  from  216  to  235  tons  displacement  on 
the  surface. 

THE  JAPANESE  NAVY. 

There  were  9  first-class  battleships  in  the  Japanese  navy 
at  the  beginning  of  the  world  war.  Of  battle  cruisers  there 
were  5,  while  of  the  older  battleships  13  were  ready  for  orders. 
Twelve  first-class  cruisers  were  ready  for  duty,  and  there  were 
9  second-class  cruisers  and  9  third-class  cruisers.  Of  gunboats 
there  were  5,  60  destroyers,  37  torpedo  boats  and  15  subma- 
rines. The  personnel  of  the  Japanese  navy  consisted  of  47,000 
officers  and  men. 

THE  ITALIAN  NAVY. 

Italy  was  ready  for  her  part  on  the  seas  with  7  first-class 
battleships,  8  of  the  older  type,  9  first-class  cruisers,  5  second- 
class  cruisers,  10  third-class  cruisers,  5  gunboats,  46  destroyers, 
75  torpedo  boats  and  20  submarines.  There  were  36,000 
officers  and  men  to  handle  these  ships. 

THE  TURKISH  NAVY. 

When  hostilities  were  declared  Turkey  had  a  navy  con- 
sisting of  2  first-class  battleships,  3  battleships  of  an  older  type, 
2  first-class  cruisers,  2  second-class  cruisers,  4  third-class 
cruisers,  8  gunboats,  2  monitors,  10  destroyers  and  8  torpedo 
boats.  The  officers  and  men  in  the  Turkish  navy  numbered 
30,000. 


THE  WORLD'S  NAVIES.  249 

UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 

The  United  States  navy,  which  has  made  an  enviable 
reputation  for  itself  wherever  and  whenever  the  boats  and  men 
have  been  engaged,  ranked  third  at  the  beginning  of  the  war. 
While  not  of  the  heaviest  type,  the  boats  were  of  the  most 
improved  models,  and  maintained  on  a  basis  that  justified  the 
behef  that  they  would  stand  up  in  the  face  of  the  severest 
opposition. 

There  were  12  modern  battleships,  30  of  an  older  type, 
10  armored  cruisers,  5  first-class  cruisers,  4  second-class 
cruisers,  16  third-class  cruisers,  30  gunboats,  9  monitors,  74 
destroyers,  19  torpedo  boats  and  73  submarines,  manned  by 
55,389  officers  and  men.  The  California,  Idaho,  Arizona,  Mis- 
sissippi and  Pennsylvania  are  the  latest  battleships  of  the  navy, 
and  are  of  the  super-dreadnought  type.  All  of  these  battle- 
ships have  a  displacement  of  more  than  31,000  tons,  and  have 
the  most  complete  equipment  that  it  is  possible  to  command. 
The  batteries  consist  of  4  13-inch  and  14  6-inch  guns,  4 
6-pounders,  together  with  4  21-inch  torpedo  tubes.  There  is  a 
variation  in  the  batteries,  but  all  have  approximately  the  same 
kind  of  armament. 

One  of  these  huge  vessels  is  about  625  feet  long,  and  has 
a  speed  of  from  21  to  23  knots.  The  Pennsylvania,  one  of  the 
largest,  is  of  31,500  horsepower,  and  cost  approximately 
$7,250,000.  In  addition  to  this.  Congress  had  authorized  the 
construction  of  what  is  designed  to  be  the  supreme  type  of 
fighting  vessel.  The  plans  for  these  vessels  call  for  the  con- 
struction of  vessels  aproximately  875  feet  long  and  nearly  90 
feet  wide.  Some  idea  of  what  enormous  vessels  these  must  be 
may  be  gained  when  it  is  seen  that  the  cruisers  are  250  feet 
longer  than  the  super-dreadnought. 

The  battle  cruisers  have  six  decks,  extending  from  end  to 
end,  and  are  so  extensive  that  they  almost  constitute  a  battle- 
front. 


250  THE  WORLD'S  KAYIES. 

This  comparison  to  a  battlefront  on  land  becomes  interest- 
ing when  consideration  of  it  is  further  pursued.  There  are 
even  raih-oads  to  fetch  ammunition  to  the  guns,  though  they 
run  vertically  instead  of  horizontally.  The  general  headquar- 
ters is  in  the  conning  tower,  to  which  all  lines  of  "field  com- 
munication" lead — telegraphs,  telephones,  etc. 

The  "observation  posts,"  for  directing  and  correcting  the 
range  and  aim  of  artillery,  are  at  the  tops  of  the  two  wire 
*'bird-cage"  masts.  This  work  is  helped  (as  on  land)  by  kite 
balloons  and  aeroplanes,  which,  as  part  of  its  fighting  equip- 
ment, the  battle  cruiser  carries.  To  blind  the  enemy  ships, 
under  suitable  circumstances,  the  big  guns  create  a  "barrage" 
of  water,  by  directing  their  fire  at  the  sea  in  front  of  the  hostile 
vessels,  throwing  over  them  a  mass  of  spray. 

AMPLE  PROVISION  FOR  THE  WOUNDED. 

On  board  the  battle  cruiser  is  a  fully  equipped  field  hos- 
pital, supplemented  by  battle  dressing  stations  near  the  guns, 
for  the  emergency  treatment  of  the  wounded.  To  the  musi- 
cians of  the  ship's  band  is  assigned  the  duty  of  carrying  wound- 
ed men  to  the  dressing  stations  and  the  hospital,  the  latter 
(being  on  one  of  the  lower  decks,  beneath  the  water  level. 

The  battle  cruiser,  built  long  and  narrow,  has  a  great 
speed.  The  four  monster  propellers  are  driven  by  electricity, 
which  is  generated  by  engines  fed  with  fuel  oil.  The  speed 
attained  is  35  knots  an  hour,  which  means  the  same  speed  as  a 
train  traveling  at  the  rate  of  40  miles  an  hour,  since  the  sea 
mile,  or  knot,  is  longer  than  the  land  mile. 

In  order  to  obtain  this  enormous  speed  It  was  necessary 
for  the  designers  of  the  battle  cruisers  to  sacrifice  armor  pro- 
tection. The  armor  on  these  ships  is  but  an  eight-inch  belt. 
The  real  object  of  the  battle  cruiser  is  to  use  its  superior  speed 
and  overwhelming  gun  power  to  overtake  and  destroy  the 
enemy's  ships  of  the  second  line,  the  auxiliaries  and  scouts. 

Each  of  these  vessels  has  a  displacement  of  34,800  tons— ^ 


THE  WORI^D^S  NAVIES.  261 

meaning,  in  plain  language,  that  they  weigh  that  much,  hence 
displace  that  much  water  when  launched.  The  biggest  British 
battle  cruiser,  which  is  the  largest  battle  cruiser  afloat,  is  the 
British  Tiger,  which  has  a  displacement  of  28,500  tons,  and  is 
less  in  length  by  150  feet  than  these  mighty  battle  cruisers. 
The  Tiger  is  much  less  formidably  armed,  carrying  eight 
13%-inch  guns.  The  largest  German  battle  cruiser  is  the 
Derfflinger,  of  26,200  tons,  and  armed  with  eight  12-inch  rifles. 

Our  latest  commissioned  dreadnought,  the  Arizona,  has 
engines  of  31,400  horsepower.  The  engines  of  that  monster 
passenger  steamship,  the  ill-fated  Lusitania,  were  of  70,000 
horsepower.  Those  of  the  Tiger  boast  120,000  horsepower. 
But  each  of  our  six  battle  cruisers  has  180,000  horsepower  to 
drive  her  through  the  water. 

HUGE  FIGHTING  CRAFT. 

These  huge  fighting  craft  are  the  most  expensive  ships 
ever  built.  Each  of  them  cost  about  $20,000,000,  the  money 
outlay  being  something  like  $16,500,000,  exclusive  of  armor 
and  guns.  And  for  each  battle  cruiser  must  be  provided,  in 
the  way  of  personnel,  1,153  enlisted  men,  64  marines  and  58 
officers. 

While  the  American  Navy  had  but  55,389  men  when  the 
war  opened  it  was  quickly  increased,  and  under  the  Army  bill, 
which  provided  for  the  reorganization  and  increasing  of  the 
land  forces,  the  naval  forces  were  also  increased. 

The  bill  increasing  the  authorized  enlisted  strength  of  the 
navy  to  150,000  did  not  provide  for  any  additional  officers 
above  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  The  increase  in  the  enlisted  force 
amounts  to  57,000,  the  authorized  strength  at  the  time  of  the 
law's  passage  being  93,000.  Based  on  the  increase,  the  allow- 
ance of  officers  would  be  747  lieutenants  and  954  lieutenants 
junior  grade  and  ensigns. 

The  increase  in  the  enlisted  strength  of  the  Marine  Corps 
from  17,400  to  30,000,  or  by  12,600,  also  gives  an  additional 


252  THE  WOELD^S  NAVIES. 

allowance  of  504  officers  to  the  corps,  which,  under  the  bill,  are 
distributed  among  the  grades  of  major,  captain,  first  lieuten- 
ant and  second  lieutenant. 

The  Marine  Corps  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  military 
organizations  in  the  world.  There  is,  probably,  no  other  such 
body  of  trained  soldiery.  While  they  are  under  the  control  of 
the  Navy  Department,  they  can  be  detached  from  that  branch 
of  the  service  and  assigned  for  duty  with  any  other  branch  of 
the  military  forces  of  the  country. 

POLICEMEN  OF  THE  SEA. 

They  are  the  policemen  of  the  sea;  they  are  artillerymen, 
infantrymen,  cavalry,  engineers,  and  soldiers,  first,  last  and  all 
the  time.  They  are  the  first  troops  in  action,  and  there  is  no 
restriction  as  to  the  kind  of  mihtary  duty  they  are  called  upon 
to  perform. 

The  Marines  served  on  shore  and  on  board  vessels  of  the 
navy  throughout  the  Revolutionary  War,  two  battalions  hav- 
ing been  authorized  by  the  Continental  Congress  November 
10,  1775.  The  present  organization  really  dates  from  July, 
1798,  when  Congress  passed  an  act  approving  the  estabhsh- 
ment  of  an  organization  to  be  known  as  the  Marine  Corps, 
consisting  of  1  major,  4  captains,  16  first  lieutenants,  12  second 
lieutenants,  48  sergeants,  48  corporals,  32  drums  and  fifes  and 
720  privates. 

Every  one  of  the  15,000  men  who  composed  the  more  than 
a  century  old  Marine  Corps  when  the  war  broke  out  was  ready 
and  on  his  toes  when  the  call  for  action  came.  There  was  noth- 
ing in  the  way  of  scientific  preparedness  that  got  by  them.  In 
the  matter  of  trench  helmets,  for  instance,  when  it  was  time  for 
the  American  nation  to  come  to  the  front  in  the  great  world 
war,  the  Marines  had  a  helmet  so  much  of  an  improvement  on 
the  one  used  by  the  Allies  that  there  was  no  comparison. 

Armored  motorcars,  likewise,  of  the  most  improved  type, 
belonged  to  the  Marine  Corps  when  the  call  for  action  came. 


THE  WOKLD^S  NAVIES.  ^^^ 

These  cars  are  capable  of  making  45  miles  an  horn-,  and  there 
were  plenty  of  them  for  service  in  the  Marine  Corps.  Some 
interesting  equipment  never  used  before  the  big  war  composed 
part  of  the  quartermasters'  stores  in  the  Marine  Corps. 

It's  a  marvel  what  these  chaps  can  do  with  a  big  naval 
gun — one  of  those  big  brutes  which  are  bolted  dovm  to  the  deck 
of  a  warship.  It  doesn't  look  like  a  thing  to  be  picked  up  and 
carted  around  the  country.  That's  precisely  what  the  heavy 
artillery  companies  do,  however.  It  takes  them  but  a  few  min- 
utes to  sling  one  of  these  five-inchers  over  the  side  of  a  ship, 
land  it,  and  take  it  wherever  it  is  needed.  They  do  this  with 
the  aid  of  a  single-spar  derrick,  some  little  narrow-gauge 
trucks  and  a  portable  narrow-gauge  railroad. 

TRANSPORTATION  OF  BIG  GUN. 

The  method  is  to  lay  down  the  railroad — it  can  be  done 
very  swiftly  by  men  carefully  trained  in  the  art  of  laying  tracks 
over  all  kinds  of  ground— put  the  gun  and  its  mount,  with  a 
specially  prepared  base  of  extremely  heavy  timbers,  on  the 
tracks,  and  trundle  it  to  the  place  where  it  is  needed  to  pour 
a  rapid  fire  into  the  enemy. 

Here  a  pit  has  been  dug,  in  which  is  laid  down  the  hea\y 
timber  base,  riveted  together  with  heavy  steel  bolts.  Then  it 
is  well  packed  with  dh^t  and  stone,  and  the  gun  carriage  made 
fast  ingeniously.  The  single-stick  derrick  has  been  erected 
alongside,  guyed  out  in  four  directions  with  heavy  ropes,  which 
are  made  fast  to  the  ground  by  means  of  ''dead  men,"  and 
manipulated  by  very  live  gangs  of  husky  marines.  A  chain 
block  of  powerful  type  is  used  to  pick  up  the  gun  carriage  and 
put  it  in  place,  and  af terv/ards  to  swing  the  gun  into  its  sockets 
on  the  carriage. 

Later  the  breech  locks  and  sights  are  added,  and  the  big 
five-inch,  40-caliber  naval  gun  is  ready  to  go  into  action.  These 
big  and  heavy  guns,  suitable  for  long  range  work  with  high 
explosive  shells,  can  be  taken  a  quarter  of  a  mile  or  so  from  the 


264  THE  WOELD'S  NAYIE8. 

ship  which  carried  them,  over  rough  ground,  set  up  and  put  in 
operation  in  a  few  days'  time. 

But  the  heavy  artillery  base  is  only  one  of  the  Marines' 
work.  They  have  big  howitzers,  of  the  more  modern  type, 
most  of  which  are  kept  at  Annapolis,  where  they  can  be  loaded 
aboard  ship  in  short  order.  Men  and  machines  can  be  mobilized 
at  the  strategic  points  in  a  very  short  time. 

EVERY  MAN'S  SERVICE. 

The  Marine  service  is  unique  in  many  respects.  For  one 
thing,  it  is  every  man's  service.  The  proportion  of  officers  who 
have  risen  from  the  ranks  or  who  have  been  commissioned 
from  civilian  life  is  higher  in  the  Marine  Corps  than  in  either 
the  Army  or  the  Navy.  This,  of  course,  makes  for  democracy 
in  the  corps.  An  enlisted  man,  who  does  not  wait  until  he  is 
too  far  up  in  the  20's  to  enlist,  has  a  very  fair  chance  of  earning 
his  commission.  Another  thing — and  this  is  of  prime  import- 
ance to  the  ambitious  fellow — ^promotion  goes  by  merit.  In  the 
army  and  navy  the  young  officer  is  promoted  by  seniority. 

Things  are  a  bit  different  in  the  Marine  Corps,  In  this 
organization  a  man  doesn't  absolutely  have  to  wait  for  his  num- 
ber to  come  around.  If  he  distinguishes  himself  above  his  fel- 
lows, he  may  be  promoted  without  much  regard  for  age  or 
length  of  service.  He  goes  up  as  he  is  able  to,  by  his  active 
ability  and  his  readiness  to  work  hard  and  effectively  for  Uncle 
Sam,  There  are  advocates,  of  course,  of  both  systems.  There 
are  merits  which  both  systems  can  justly  claim.  But  it  goes 
without  saying  that  this  possibility  of  promotion  keeps  every- 
body in  the  Marine  Corps  on  the  jump. 

Even  the  enlisted  men  who  are  too  old  to  get  commissions 
have  something  to  work  for,  Not  very  long  since  Congress 
authorized  the  appointment  of  "warrant  officers"  in  the  Marine 
Corps.  The  Navy  had  this  grade  for  many  years.  It  is  new 
in  the  Marine  Corps,  and  is  an  added  incentive  to  hard  work. 

Another  incentive — and  perhaps  the  strongest  one — ^that 


THE  WORLD^S  NAVIES.  255 

draws  young  fellows  of  the  up-and-doing  sort  into  the  Marine 
Corps  is  that  of  active  service.  The  Marines  boast  that  they 
are  always  on  the  job;  that  no  matter  how  peaceful  the  time, 
the  Marines  are  sure  to  see  "something  stirring"  right  along. 
It  is  a  saying— and  a  true  one — in  the  Marine  Corps  that  every 
marine  wha  !ias  served  the  ordinary  enlistment  in  the  corps 
since  the  Spanish- American  war  has  smelt  powder.  Ever  since 
the  fuss  with  Spain  the  marines  have  been  covering  themselves 
with  glory.  In  that  httle  war  of  189B  the  Marines  were  the 
first  to  land  in  Cuba.  They  held  Guantanamo  for  three 
months.  In  1890  they  saw  service  in  the  Philippines;  the  next 
year  in  China.  In  1902  the  Marines  took  part  in  the  fighting 
against  Aguinaldo,  the  wily  Filipino  leader.  In  1903  they  put 
down  the  rebellion  in  Panama,  captured  Colon  and  opened  up 
the  Panama  railroad.  In  1906  they  helped  quiet  the  uprising 
of  that  summer  in  Cuba.  They  were  in  Nicaragua  in  1909. 
From  1911  to  1913  they  did  more  duty  in  Cuba,  with  a  whirl 
in  Nicaragua  again  in  1912.  They  helped  hold  Vera  Cruz 
for  three  months  in  1914.  Next  year  they  went  to  Haiti,  where 
they  have  been  moderately  busy  from  time  to  time  since.  Santo 
Domingo  saw  them  in  1916. 

AN  UNAPPROACHABLE  RECORD. 
Neither  the  army  nor  the  navy  can  claim  anything  to  beat 
it— you  couldn't  tell  a  marine  that  the  rival  branches  of  the 
service  can  claim  anything  to  equal  it.  And  as  for  the  modern 
implements  of  warfare — ^the  European  armies  have  no  advan- 
tage over  the  marines  for  testing  out  new  devices.  They  had 
armored  cars,  for  instance,  as  far  back  as  1906;  they  began  to 
use  motor  trucks  for  military  purposes  as  early  as  1909.  Every 
marine  expedition  is  equipped  with  its  quota  of  armored  trucks. 
They  would  as  soon  think  of  voyaging  over  the  seas  to  put 
down  an  incipient  revolution  without  their  armored  ears  and 
motor  trucks  as  they  would  of  going  to  meet  the  enemy  without 
their  rifle. 


256  THE  WORLD^S  NAVIES. 

There  used  to  be  an  old  joke  about  * 'Horse  Marines."  A 
sailorman  on  a  horse  is  an  incongruous  thing — a  sight  to  make 
you  hold  your  sides.  But  the  marines  are  not  plain  sailormen. 
They  are  "soldier  and  sailor,  too,"  and  as  soldiers  they  have 
turned  the  joke  on  the  old  saw  about  "horse  marines."  There 
are  "horse  marines"  these  days,  and  mighty  good  cavaby  they 
make. 

The  marine  can  ride  with  the  best  of  the  cavalrymen.  And 
in  the  fracas  in  Domingo  there  were  two  cavalry  companies  of 
marines  organized. 

THE  MANY-SIDED  MARINE. 

It  takes  a  bit  longer  to  make  an  efficient  marine  than  to 
make  an  infantryman.  This  because  the  marine  is  a  man  of 
many  specialties.  He  is,  of  course,  in  season  and  out  of  season, 
an  international  policeman.  That's  his  job  in  time  of  peace. 
But  when  he  fares  abroad  to  fight  his  country's  battles  he  may 
be  called  upon  to  do  almost  any  kind  of  work.  He  may  be  an 
artilleryman;  a  signalman;  an  airman.  He  may  be,  and 
usually  is,  anything  that  his  country  needs  at  that  particular 
time.    And  he  is  trained  to  meet  the  emergency. 

The  new  recruit,  in  ordinary  times,  is  sent  for  his  first  in- 
struction to  Port  Royal,  down  in  Georgia.  There  he  has 
nothing  to  do  but  drill,  drill,  driU,  until  he  can  do  the  infantry 
evolutions  in  his  sleep.  He  learns  to  drill,  he  learns  to  keep 
clean — the  Marines  are  something  of  a  dandy  corps — and  he 
learns  to  take  care  of  himself  no  matter  what  happens.  He  is 
taught  to  be  a  soldier  and  a  man.  He  learns  to  walk  straight, 
shoot  straight,  think  straight.  And  then  he  goes  for  a  spell  to 
sea — for  after  all,  he  needs  sea  legs  as  well  as  land  legs. 

But  these  two  tricks  of  duty  by  no  means  end  the  marine's 
schooling.  When  he  has  become  an  efficient  all-around  man  he 
may  specialize.  He  may,  if  he  chooses,  go  into  the  signal  corps 
and  learn  the  multitude  of  details  connected  with  this  ultra- 
modern arm  of  the  service.     He  learns  to  send  messages  by 


THE  WORLD'S  NAVIES.  257 

every  possible  means.  He  learns  to  operate  a  radio.  And,  it 
might  be  mentioned  in  passing,  the  Marine  Corps  is  equipped 
with  the  very  finest  of  radio  apparatus.  They  have  big  trucks 
which  carry  the  outfit  and  supply  the  power  for  either  sending 
radio  messages  or  operating  huge  electric  searchlights.  Or  he 
may  go  into  aviation. 


Reproduced  by  permission  of  N.  Y.  Evening  Post, 
INTERNATIONAL  BOUNDAEIES  BEFORE  THE  WAR. 
This  map  shows  the  bouiidary  lines  between  nations  as  they  were  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war,  as  also  the  coast  lines  of  Europe.     The  latter  are  brought 
out  in  bold  relief. 


858 


CHAPTEE  XIV. 
THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR. 

Unexpected  Developments— How  the  Was  Flames  Spreai>— A  Score  of  Coun- 
tries Involvei>— The  Points  of  Contact— Picturesque  and  Rugged  Bul- 
garia, RouMANiA,  Servia,  Greece,  Itai.y  and  Historic  Southeast  Europh 

THE  real  history  of  the  greatest  war  of  all  times  is  the 
history  of  the  entire  world,  touching  every  phase  of 
existence  in  a  manner  that  has  never  been  approxi- 
mated by  any  other  conflict.  The  motives  and  ramifications 
are  so  great  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the  human  mind  to 
grasp  the  significance  of  many  things  of  importance  which,  at 
a  glance,  seem  to  be  but  incidents. 

The  world  looked  on  expectantly  when  the  war  started, 
because  there  was  a  general  knowledge  of  the  conditions  exist- 
ing in  Europe  and  the  undercurrent  was  felt  by  students  of 
international  affairs.  But  that  Russia  would  revolt  and  the 
Czar  abdicate,  as  he  did  in  March,  1917,  and  the  iron-ruled 
country  would  set  up  a  government  of  its  own— would  join 
the  circle  of  democracies— was  not  even  hinted  at.  Neither 
was  it  intimated  that  Constantine  I,  King  of  Greece,  would 
abdicate  in  favor  of  his  son.  Prince  Alexander,  as  he  did  in  the 
following  June,  under  pressure,  because  of  his  sympathy  for 
Germany. 

Neither  was  there  a  suspicion  that  the  fire  started  by  me 
flash  of  a  pistol  and  the  bursting  of  a  bomb  in  Bosnia  would 
spread  until  sixteen  countries  were  arrayed  against  Ger- 
many and  Austria,  supported  by  the  Bulgarians  and  the 
Turks.  And  to  these  must  be  added  the  entrance  into  the  con- 
flict of  Canada,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  possessions  of  Great 
Britain,  and  smaller  possessions  of  other  countries.  The  flames 
swept  over  the  face  of  the  earth  in  this  fashion : 

Starting  with  the  movement  of  Austria  against  Servia, 
after  the  assassination  of  the  Archduke  Ferdinand,  there  lined 

259 


260  THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR. 

up  as  a  consequence  of  the  alliances  formed  between  the  pow- 
ers, the  countries  referred  to  in  preceding  chapters.  The  triple 
alliance  was  originally  an  agreement  between  Germany,  Aus- 
tria-Hungary and  Italy,  to  strengthen  their  positions,  and  the 
Triple  Entente  consisted  of  agreements  between  France,  Eng- 
land and  Russia. 

INVASION  OF  BELGIUM. 

Briefly,  the  invasion  of  Belgium  by  Germany,  and  her 
ambitions  in  the  southeast,  where  Russia  had  what  amounted 
to  protectorate  relations,  drew  first  France,  England  and 
Russia  into  the  strife,  and  step  by  step  there  became  involved 
nation  after  nation.  The  steps,  marked  by  the  declarations  of 
war,  were  as  follows:  On  July  28, 1914,  Austria  declared  war 
on  Servia,  and  on  August  1  Germany  made  the  declaration 
against  Russia.  Next  Germany  turned  upon  France,  on  the 
third  day  of  August,  and  also  on  Belgium,  whereupon,  on  the 
following  day.  Great  Britain  declared  war  on  Germany;  a  day 
later  Austria-Hungary  issued  the  mandate  against  Russia, 
and  two  days  later,  or  on  August  8,  Montenegro  declared  war 
on  Austria.  Austria  accepted  the  challenge,  and  then  Servia 
took  up  the  cudgel  against  Germany.  France  made  formal 
declaration  of  war  on  Austria-Hungary  and  by  the  end  of 
August  Montenegro  had  declared  against  Germany;  Great 
Britain  on  Austria;  Japan  on  Germany;  Austria  on  Japan; 
Austria  on  Belgium.  Later,  or  early  in  November,  Russia 
declared  herself  against  Turkey,  as  did  France  and  Great 
Britain. 

For  six  months  the  battle  raged  and  the  rest  of  the  world 
regarded  the  result  with  grave  concern  until  in  May  of  1915 
Italy,  having  renounced  her  alliance  with  Germany  and  Aus- 
tria, declared  war  first  on  Austria,  then  on  Turkey.  In  the 
fall  of  1915  Servia  took  up  arms  against  Bulgaria,  as  did 
Great  Britain,  France,  Italy  and  Russia.  Then  Germany  de- 
clared against  Portugal,  whose  government  replied  in  kind; 


THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR.  261 

Austria  followed  Germany  in  the  alignment  and  finally,  in 
August,  1916,  there  were  exchanges  of  sharp  "courtesies"—^ 
the  complete  severance  of  all  diplomatic  relations  and  open 
warfare— between  Roumania  and  Austria-Hungary;  then  be- 
tween Bulgaria  and  Roumania,  with  the  consequent  alignment 
of  the  Central  Powers.  Italy  had  also  made  her  declaration 
against  Germany  specific.  So  for  nine  months  the  war  waged 
with  terrible  bitterness  until  on  April  6,  the  Ufaited  States,  by 
the  proclamation  of  President  Wilson,  was  finally  at  war  with 
Germany. 

IN  THE  NATURE  OF  MERE  FORMALITIES. 

^  These  steps  were,  in  many  instances,  in  the  nature  of  for- 
malities, for  the  relationships  of  some  of  the  countries  involved 
placed  them  in  the  position  of  practically  being  at  war  before 
formal  announcement  was  made.  The  position  then,  was  that 
Germany,  Austria-Hungary  and  Turkey  were  supported  by 
Bulgaria,  who  was  anxious  to  get  redress  for  having  been 
cheated  out  of  what  she  regarded  as  her  rightful  possessions  in 
the  settlement  of  the  Balkan  war  question.  Those  aligned  on 
the  other  side  were  England,  France,  Russia,  Montenegro, 
Italy,  Belgium  (which  had  been  making  defensive  warfare  in 
keeping  with  her  desire  to  be  true  to  her  neutral  pledges) ; 
Servia,  Roumania,  Japan,  Portugal,  the  United  States,  the 
little  principality  of  Monaco,  which  is  best  known  as  the  seat 
of  Monte  Carlo,  the  great  gambling  center  of  Europe,  and 
San  Marino,  a  similar  "patch"  on  the  map  of  Europe.  Brazil, 
Guatemala,  and  the  little  Republic  of  Cuba  also  aligned  them- 
selves against  Germany  in  support  of  the  Allies,  though  there 
was  no  actual  engagement  of  their  forces.  Thus  there  could 
be  counted  as  at  war  against  the  Central  Powers  in  June,  1917, 
sixteen  countries. 

Most  interesting  of  all  the  countries  involved  were  those 
belonging  to  the  Balkan  group  and  centering  in  southeastern 
Europe.    The  Balkan  nations,  Bulgaria,  Servia,  Montenegro, 


THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR.  263 

(With  Greece,  paved  the  way  for  their  entrance  into  the  conflict 
when  they  formed  an  aUiance,  in  1912,  for  common  protection, 
particularly  for  the  enforcement  of  one  of  the  provisions  of 
the  Berlin  Treaty,  guaranteeing  local  government  to  the  Bul- 
gar  and  Serbian  colonies  in  Macedonia.  Montenegro  began 
war  on  Turkey  in  October,  and  Bulgaria,  Servia  and  Greece 
3omed  and  drove  the  Turks  out  of  many  of  their  strongholds. 

"COMIC  OPERA"  SOLDIERS. 

In  a  month  of  fighting  the  little  countries,  in  the  pictur- 
esque southeastern  section,  whose  soldiers  have  been  depicted 
as  "comic  opera"  soldiers,  had  rent  Turkey;  Greece  had  cap- 
tured the  famous  Macedonian  city  of  Salonica,  once  known  as 
Thessalonica,  where  was  located  the  church  in  which  was  ad- 
dressed St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians ;  while  the 
Servians  had  captured  Monastir,  one  of  the  most  important 
centers  in  Macedonia,  and  the  Bulgarians  had  driven  the  Turks 
ahnost  to  the  famed  city  of  Constantinople.  The  Servian  sol- 
diers finally  marched  to  the  Adriatic  sea,  and  Albania  raised 
a  flag  of  its  own  and  asked  Austria-Hungary  and  Italy  to 
recognize  its  independence  and  grant  it  protection. 

Within  little  more  than  two  months  Turkey  had  been  de- 
prived of  the  greater  portion  of  her  possessions  in  Europe  and 
a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between  the  allied  countries  and 
the  Turks.  By  this  agreement  Albania  became  in  effect  a  su- 
zeramty,  protected  by  Austria.  But  the  agreement  between 
Germany,  Austria-Hungary  and  Italy— the  Triple  Entente- 
gave  those  countries  a  combmed  power  which,  when  it  came  to 
fixing  the  terms  of  peace,  left  the  small  allied  countries  of 
victory  at  a  disadvantage,  and  while  Montenegro  and  Greece 
gamed  some  territory,  as  did  Servia,  Bulgaria  lost  what  she 
had  gamed  in  the  war.  Turkey  lost  90  per  cent  of  her  Empire 
in  Europe,  which  so  aroused  the  country  that  the  rising  of 
the  young  Turks  f  oUowed  and  the  government  was  reorgan- 


264  THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR. 

ized.    The  enforced  terms  of  settlement,  however,  set  the  little 
countries  at  each  other's  throats. 

The  field  of  the  Balkan  battles  is  the  very  center  of  the 
world's  history.  Along  the  Adriatic,  Ionian  and  Agean  seas 
are  lands  and  territories  peopled  with  races  that  mark  their 
ancestry  back  to  the  very  darkest  ages.  The  protected  country 
of  Albania,  with  its  rocky  surface,  numbers  among  its  peoples 
descendants  of  the  Arnauts,  whose  very  origin  is  a  mystery. 
They  were  present  before  the  days  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The 
Ottoman  Turks,  the  Bulgars  from  the  plains  of  the  Volga  and 
the  Ural  Mountains,  the  Serbs,  the  Roumanians,  Russians, 
Italians,  the  Slavs,  Tartars. 

A  REGION  OF  MOUNTAINS. 

Albania  is  a  mountainous  region  along  the  Adriatic  coast, 
peopled  with  descendants  of  the  ancients  who  maintain  their 
characteristics.  They  are  said  to  be  descendants  of  the  Pelas- 
gian  races,  which  inhabited  the  territory  before  the  Greeks 
builded  their  Athens. 

The  Albanians  are  wild,  daring  mountaineers,  and  though 
the  people  have,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  been  under  Turk- 
ish rule  for  centuries,  they  have  never  recognized  the  sov- 
ereignty of  the  Sultan.  It  was  originally  part  of  the  Turkish 
Empire  in  Europe,  having  been  taken  by  Turkey,  in  1467,  and 
is  a  fertile,  but  wild  country. 

The  same  picturesque  people  that  make  up  the  popula- 
tion of  Albania  constitute  the  populace  of  the  little  country 
of  Montenegro,  which  was  once  part  of  the  Turkish  posses- 
sion. Montenegro  contained  about  3486  square  miles  of  terri- 
tory before  its  acquisitions  in  the  Balkan  wars.  Aided  by 
Russia,  the  country  obtained  its  independence  from  Turkey  in 
1878,  and  in  1910  became  a  kingdom.  Its  present  area  is  about 
5650  square  miles  and  the  population  520,000.  The  capital  is 
Cettinje. 

Bulgaria  was  also  once  a  part  of  the  Turkish  possessions, 


THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR.  26g 

and  under  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  in  1878,  became  a  suzerainty. 
It  is  a  famous  pastoral  country,  inhabited  by  a  people  for 
years  held  under  the  Ottoman  heel.  They  are  racially  Tura- 
nians, and  kin  of  the  Tartar  and  Huns,  who  came  into  their 
present  fertile  country  from  the  vast  plains  of  eastern  Russia. 
They  made  their  way  thither  more  than  a  thousand  years  ago, 
and  battling  at  the  very  gates  of  Constantinople,  by  their  fierce 
crusades,  secured  the  grants  from  the  Byzantine  Empire  of 
the  territory,  which  constitutes  the  Bulgaria  of  today.  The 
population  is  nearly  5,000,000,  and  the  country  contains  about 
43,000  square  miles. 

WHY  ITALY  ENTERED  THE  WAR. 

Italy's  reasons  for  entering  the  war,  aside  from  her  de- 
mands for  territory,  in  exchange  for  continuance  of  neutrality, 
have  to  do  with  matters  of  years  gone  by,  when  she  began  the 
struggle  for  her  liberation  from  the  Austrian  domination. 
Italy  desired,  among  other  things,  to  acquire  Trentino,  Goritz, 
and  other  adjacent  territory  controlled  by  Austria,  but  Italian 
in  every  attribute.  Trentino  is  a  rocky  region,  and  strategically 
valuable  to  the  country  possessing  it,  which  was  proved  by  the 
terrible  struggle  which  the  Italians  were  forced  to  make  in 
their  attacks  against  the  Austrian  forces. 

The  city  of  Trent  is  the  capital  of  Trentino,  famous  in 
history,  and  the  seat  of  the  long  church  council  in  1545-46.  It 
was  in  turn  controlled  by  Roman,  Goth,  Hun,  Lombard  and 
Holy  Roman  Empire.  It  is  the  site  of  many  historic  buildings, 
notably  the  cathedral  of  Trent,  which  is  a  fine  example  of 
Lombard  architecture,  and  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Mag- 
gorie,  where  the  famous  Council  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  was  held.  There  are  old  towers,  and  libraries  rich  in 
manuscripts. 

Trentino  is  famous  for  its  mountain  passes,  over  which 
the  Italians  have  been  compelled  to  drag  their  heavy  artillery 
and  implements  of  war.    The  Alpini,  the  mountaineer  soldiers 

H  B^13 


966 


THE  NATIONS  AT  WAE.  267 

of  Italy,  are  among  the  most  picturesque  in  the  world.  They 
have  scaled  the  almost  perpendicular  faces  of  the  Alps,  climb- 
ing from  crag  to  crag  with  their  bodies  roped  together,  drag- 
ging machine  guns  in  pieces  strapped  to  their  shoulders.  Tol- 
mino,  Trieste,  Istria,  Dalmatia,  Avlona,  the  prime  harbor  of 
Albania  (seized  by  Italy  in  the  fall  of  1916) .  These  are  little 
spots  in  the  territory  logically  Italian,  which  Italy  covets. 
DIVIDED  INTO   SIXTEEN  DEPARTMENTS. 

Italy,  since  its  consolidation  into  one  kingdom  in  1870, 
has  been  divided  into  sixteen  departments  comprising  sixty- 
nine  provinces.  The  country  has  a  total  area  of  110,623  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  a  little  more  than  35,000,000.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  is  irrevocably  linked  to  the  history  of 
Italy  and  Rome,  its  capital,  marked  the  farthest  advance  of 
civihzation  in  the  ancient  days.  It  possesses  four  distinct  zones, 
ranging  from  the  almost  arctic  cold  of  the  momitain  belts  to  an 
almost  tropical  heat  in  the  southern  lowlands.  It  is  one  of  the 
picturesque  countries  of  the  world,  a  center  of  art,  industry 
and  travel. 

Servia,  which  is  separated  from  Austria-Hungary  by  the 
Danube,  is  of  precisely  the  same  character  as  the  other  rich, 
mountainous  region.  The  country  was  subjugated  by  the 
Turks,  who  retained  possession  of  it  until  1T17.  Austria  then 
wrested  control  from  the  Turks,  and  held  it  until  1791,  when 
Tm-key  again  dominated  it.  In  1805  the  Servians  revolted, 
and  secured  temporary  independence,  only  to  again  come  un- 
der the  Ottoman  rule.  Again  it  secured  freedom  in  1815,  and 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  independent  existence  was  secured  for 
it.  Turkey  became  only  a  nominal  authority.  It  became  a 
kingdom  in  1882,  after  having  become  absolutely  independent 
with  the  Berlin  Treaty. 

The  people  are  Slavonic,  and  kin  to  the  Croats  of  ancient 
history.  They  are  described  as  having  come  from  Poland  and 
GaUcia,  moving  down  the  Danube,  into  what  is  the  present 


268  THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR. 

kingdom.  In  the  fourteenth  century  the  Servian  empire  com- 
X^rised  the  whole  Balkan  peninsula,  from  Greece  to  Poland, 
and  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Adriatic.  But  Servia  warred 
with.  Turkey,  and  her  troops  were  defeated  in  the  great  battle 
at  Kossovo,  and  the  Ottoman  power  became  supreme.  The 
country  has  an  area  of  about  84,000  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of  4,600,000. 

LITTLE  BOSNIA'S  FUTURE. 

Bosnia,  where  was  assassinated  the  Archduke  Francis 
Ferdinand,  of  Austria,  was  a  Turkish  province,  west  of  Servia, 
and  under  the  treaty  of  Berlin  was  to  be  administered  for  an 
undefined  period  by  the  Austrian  government.  The  little  sec- 
tion contains  about  16,000  square  miles  and  has  a  population  of 
about  1,750,000,  largely  of  Slavonic  origin.  They  are  partly 
Mohammedans,  partly  Roman  Catholics  and  Greek  Catholics. 
In  the  middle  ages  Bosnia  belonged  to  the  Eastern  Empire. 
Later  it  became  a  separate  kingdom,  dependent  upon  Hun- 
gary, only  to  be  conquered  by  the  Tm'ks.  It  is  the  mountain- 
ous, rugged  countrjr  of  the  Julian  and  Dinaric  Alps,  but  has 
many  fertile  valleys,  and  is  well  watered  by  the  river  Save,  and 
its  numerous  tributaries. 

Greece,  the  modern  kingdom,  is  one  of  the  countries  that 
for  centuries  were  politically  included  within  the  limits  of  the 
Turkish  Empire.  In  its  present  form  it  represents  but  a  por- 
tion of  that  country,  famous  in  history,  as  the  Greece  of  the 
Ancients — that  classic  land  which  holds  the  most  conspicuous 
place  in  the  pages  of  ancient  history — ^but  still  it  is  inclusive  of 
the  greatest  names  belonging  to  the  glorious  past.  It  is  the 
country  of  Athens,  Sparta,  Corinth,  Thebes  and  Argos.  It  is 
separated  from  Turkey  by  a  winding  boundary,  extending 
from  the  Gulf  of  Arta  on  the  west  to  the  Gulf  of  Salonica  on 
the  east. 

The  earliest  settlers  were  the  Pelasgi,  who  were  in  course 
of  time  replaced  by  the  Hellenes.     They,  in  turn,  were  sue- 


THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR.  269 

ceeded  by  the  Phoenicians,  who  swayed  the  country.  Athens, 
Sparta,  Thebes  and  Corinth  came  into  existence  and  became 
the  centers  of  poHtical  government,  of  the  most  progressive 
advancement  in  civilization.  Civil  discords  brought  on  first 
the  Peloponnesian  War,  about  434*  B.  C,  and  made  them  prey 
to  the  Macedonians,  Successively  invaded  by  Goths,  Vandals 
and  Normans  the  country  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Turks 
in  1481,  though  for  two  centuries  the  power  of  the  Turk  was 
questioned  by  the  Venitians.  Revolt  was  had  from  the  Otto- 
man yoke  in  1821,  and  independence  was  secured  by  the  inter- 
ference of  foreign  powers  after  the  defeat  of  the  Turk  at  the 
Navarino,  in  1827.  Through  the  succeeding  years  it  has  been 
a  protected  monarchy. 

ONE  OF  THE  BALKAN  GROUP. 

Roumania,  the  largest  of  the  Balkan  group,  lying  be- 
tween Russia  on  the  north,  and  Bulgaria  on  the  south,  is  the 
home  of  the  Gacians,  descendants  of  the  warlike  tribes  who  for 
years  held  their  own  against  Greek  and  Roman.  After  the 
fall  of  Rome  the  province  became  a  melting  pot,  through  which 
the  hordes  of  invaders,  passing  from  Russia  to  Asia,  were  in  a 
sense  made  one  people.  The  Goths,  the  Huns,  the  Lombards, 
the  Bulgars  and  the  Magyars  traversed  the  region,  leaving 
many  settlers.  It  became  divided  into  two  provinces,  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia,  known  as  the  Danubian  provinces. 

Both  provinces  were  conquered  by  the  Turks  in  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries,  and  under  Peter  the  Great  the 
Russians  attempted  the  conquest  of  the  provinces.  In  1859 
the  two  provinces  were  united  imder  a  prince  whose  indepen- 
dence both  Turkey  and  Russia  recognized,  and  in  1881  the 
country  declared  itself  a  kingdom.  The  province  of  Wallachia 
derives  its  name  from  the  people  who  early  settled  there,  the 
Wallachs.  The  Roumanians  claim  descent  from  Vlachi, 
a  colony  of  Romans,  who  settled  in  Thrace,  and,  in  the  twelfth 
century,  emigrated  to  the  Danube.     The  name  Roumania  is 


270  THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR. 

derived  from  the  word  Roman,  the  country  having  originally 
been  "the  Land  of  the  Roumani."  Roumania  has  a  population 
of  about  7,600,000  and  comprises  64,000  square  miles. 

Macedonia,  famous  country  of  Greece  in  the  time  of 
Philip,  father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  embraced  the  entire 
region  from  the  Scardian  Mountains  to  Thessaly,  and  from  the 
Epirus  and  Iliyria  to  the  river  Nestos,  taking  in  what  is  now 
part  of  Salonica.  It  was  reduced  by  the  Persians  and  subse- 
quently Alexander  the  Great  made  it  the  nucleus  of  a  vast  and 
powerful  empire  along  with  Greece.  Ultimately  it  passed 
under  Roman  sway,  until  it  was  ceded,  in  1913,  to  Greece. 

AN  OBJECT  OF  CONTENTION. 

Alsace-Lorraine  is  worthy  of  note,  as  comprising  one  of 
the  territories  which  for  centuries  have  been  the  cause  of  con- 
flict between  Germany  and  France.  It  is  pointed  to  as  the 
physical  evidence  of  the  humiKation  of  France  at  the  hands  of 
the  Germans,  in  1870,  and  has  for  nearly  one-half  a  century 
been  a  German  imperial  territory.  The  surrender  of  Alsace 
and  part  of  Lorraine  was  made  the  principal  condition  of  peace 
on  the  settlement  of  the  war  of  1870.  Bismarck,  it  is  said, 
might  have  been  content  with  a  language  boundary,  taking 
only  that  portion  of  the  country  in  which  lived  those  who  spoke 
the  German  tongue. 

For  strategic  purposes,  however,  Alsace  and  Lorraine, 
with  the  exception  of  one  district,  were  taken.  The  strip  or 
country  was  to  be  governed  by  the  power  of  the  German  Em- 
peror until  the  constitution  of  the  German  Empire  was  estab- 
lished. Many  of  the  inhabitants  opposed  the  Prussian  domi- 
nation, and  a  vote  was  taken  on  who  would  declare  themselves 
Germans  and  remain  in  the  territory,  or  French  and  leave. 
More  than  40,000  left  the  country  and  went  into  France. 

The  German  language  was  made  compulsory  in  the 
schools,  the  courts  and  the  legislative  body.  The  French  never 
forgot  their  loss,  and  revenge  for  that  loss  has  been  a  subject 


&n 


272  THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR. 

of  consideration  in  their  foreign  policy  ever  since  the  war  of 
1871.  Alsace  and  Lorraine  contain  about  5600  square  miles, 
and  together  have  a  population  of  about  two  million,  [About 
85  per  cent  of  the  people  speak  German. 

PICTURESQUE  TURKEY. 

Turkey,  one  of  the  picturesque  and  ancient  countries 
which  is  aligned  with  the  Germans,  is  a  Mohammedan  state  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire  in  southeastern  Europe  and  western 
Asia,  whose  holdings  in  Europe  have  been  steadily  decreasing, 
especially  during  recent  years.  The  immediate  possessions  of 
Turkey,  or  those  directly  under  the  Sultan's  rule  at  the  time 
this  country  became  involved  in  the  great  world  war,  extended 
from  Montenegro,  Bosnia,  Servia  and  eastern  Roumelia  on  the 
north,  to  the  Agean  Sea  and  Greece  on  the  south,  and  from 
the  Black  Sea  to  the  Adriatic,  the  Straits  of  Otranto  and 
the  Ionic  Sea.  In  September,  1911,  the  Italian  government 
sent  a  long  list  of  claims  made  by  Italy  against  Turkey  for 
economic  and  commercial  discrimination  against  Italian  com- 
merce, and  the  person  of  Italian  citizens  all  over  the  world. 
A  reply  was  demanded  within  twenty-four  hours,  and  failing 
to  receive  a  reply  considered  satisfactory,  Italy  immediately 
sent  warships  to  Tripoli,  bombarded  and  captured  the  city. 
This  meant  that  Turkey  has  lost  one  of  her  most  important 
seaports,  consequently  weakening  her  position. 

The  immediate  possessions  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  at  this 
time,  had  an  area  of  65,350  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
6,200,000.  In  Asia  Turkey  had  possessions  of  693,610  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  16,900,000,  while  in  Africa  about 
398,000  square  miles  belonged  to  the  Turkish  Empire,  on  which 
lived  1,000,000  persons.  This  gave  Turkey  an  area  of  about 
1,157,860  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  24,100,000.  A 
number  of  islands  in  the  Agean  Sea  belong  to  Turkey,  and 
Egypt  is  also  nominally  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Sultan. 

The  population  is  a  motley  assortment  of  races,  nationali- 


fees 


Drawn  by  Ernest  Prater.  ©  Underwood  &  Underwood.  N.  Y. 

FIGHTING  IN  PALESTINE  EAST    OF  THE    JORDAN. 
Infantry  were   in   the   act  of   occupying  an  important  hill  when  they  were  met 
with    a   strong   coimter-attack.      The   timely  arrival  o€  machine  guns  and  supports 
restored  the  situation. 


u^      B 


"15 


:«i 


^     M   CO  C^ 

-^     Ph 

n  ^.S".2 


-a 


Captain  John  H.  Patton,  370th  U.  S.  Infantry  (formerly  8th  Illinois  Infantry). 

Reg-imental  Adjutant  to  September  11.  1918.  Commanding  2nd  Battalion  from 
September  11,  1918,  to  December  17,  1918.  Saint  Mihiel  Sector  from  June  21, 
1918,  to  Julv  3,  1918.  Arg-onne  Forest  from  July  16,  1918,  to  August  15,  1918. 
Battles  for  Mont  des  Sign-^s  Septemb'er  16  to-  September  3  0,  1918.  Oise-Aisne 
offensive  September  30  to  November  11,  1918.  Awarded  the  French  Croix  de  Guerre 
(Division  Citation  for  meritorious  service  coverirg  the  period  September  11  to  November 
11,  1918. 


M   ° 


01  - 
m  V 

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+J  o 

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THE  NATIONS  AT  WAE.  273 

ties  and  creeds.  About  38  per  cent  being  Ottomans  or  Turks. 
The  Slavic  and  Rouman  races  come  next  in  importance,  then 
the  Arabs,  the  remaining  population  consisting  of  Moors, 
Druses,  Km-ds,  Tartars,  Albanians,  Circassians,  Syrians,  Ar- 
menians, and  Greeks,  besides  Jews  and  Gypsies. 
PHOENIX  OF  THE  GREEK  EMPIRE. 

The  Ottoman  Empire  arose  from  the  ruins  of  the  old 
Greek  Empire,  early  in  the  fifteenth  century,  Constantinople 
being  made  its  capital  in  1453,  after  its  captm^e  by  Mohammed 
II.  At  the  accession  of  Mohammed  IV,  in  1648,  the  Turkish 
Empire  was  at  the  zenith  of  its  power.  Internal  corruption 
caused  loss  of  power,  and  in  1774,  a  large  slice  of  territory  was 
ceded  to  Russia.  In  1821  Greece  became  independent.  The 
Crimean  War,  in  1854-56,  checked  Russia  for  a  while,  but  in 
1875  the  people  of  Herzegovina  rebelled.  A  year  later  the 
Servians  and  Montenegrins  revolted,  and  in  1877  Russia  be- 
gan hostile  operations  in  both  parts  of  the  Turkish  Emipre. 
At  this  time  Roumania  declared  her  independence.  After  the 
fall  of  Kars  and  of  Plevna,  the  Tm^kish  resistance  completely 
collapsed,  and  in  1878  Turkey  was  compelled  to  agree  to  the 
Treaty  of  San  Stefano. 

Within  the  year  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  declared  Roumania, 
Servia  and  Montenegro  independent;  Roumanian  Bessarabia 
was  ceded  to  Russia,  Austria  was  empowered  to  occupy  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina ;  and  Bulgaria  was  made  a  principality.  The 
main  events  in  the  history  of  the  Ottoman  Empu-e  since  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin  were  the  French  invasion  of  Tunis  in  1881, 
the  Treaty  with  Greece,  executed  under  pressure  of  the  Great 
Powers  in  1881,  by  which  Greece  obtained  Thessaly  and  a  strip 
of  Epirus ;  the  occupation  of  Egypt  by  Great  Britain  in  1882 ; 
the  revolution  of  Philippopolis  in  1885,  by  which  eastern  Rou- 
meUa  became  united  with  Bulgaria.  In  1908  Bulgaria  de- 
clared its  independence  and  the  Young  Turk  Party  extorted  a 
constitution  and  a  parliament  from  Abdul-Hamud  II,  who 


2*^*  THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR. 

was  deposed  in  1909  by  the  unanimous  vote  of  the  national 
assembly.  Mohammed  V,  eldest  brother  of  the  deposed  Sultan 
succeeded  to  the  throne. 

^  Russia,  "the  Great  Bear/'  whose  part  in  the  war  brought 
on  internal  strife  and  revolution  which  robbed  Czar  Nicholas 
of  his  throne,  traces  its  history  back  for  more  than  ten  cen- 
turies, when  the  Norse  invaded  the  territory  and  founded 
Veliki  Novgorod,  for  many  years  one  of  the  chief  Russian 
cities.    ThQ  Norse,  to  use  the  modern  vernacular,  "put  Russia 
on  the  map"  when  the  Russian  army  fought  its  way  to  the  very 
walls  of  Constantinople.    Much  of  the  early  history  of  th0 
country  is  legendary,  and  one  of  the  famous  stories  is  that  after; 
Igor,  who  commanded  the  great  armies,  was  put  to  death  by 
rebellious  subjects,  his  widow  sought  out  the  territory  where 
her  husband  had  lost  his  life  and  pretending  to  make  peacd 
with  them,  requested  every  householder  to  give  her  a  pigeon, 
WINGED  FIREBRANDS. 
When  they  gladly  complied  with  her  request  she  sent  the 
tame  birds  back  home  with  flaming  firebrands  tied  to  theii: 
tails,  and  they  entered  their  lofts  or  rests  and  started  fires 
which  destroyed  the  city  of  Korosten.    The  ascendancy  of  the 
Romanoff  dynasty,  which  maintained  in  Russia  through  the 
centuries,  was  estabhshed  through  the  atrocities  of  Ivan  the 
Terrible,  who  is  said  to  have  absolutely  destroyed  the  descen- 
dants of  the  Rurik,  the  first  Nbrse  chieftain.    Ivan  the  Ter- 
rible was  the  first  Czar  of  Russia.    He  conquered  Servia  and 
his  domestic  infamies  and  intrigues  are  among  the  historical 
scandals  of  the  country. 

Through  every  reign  in  Russian  history  there  ran  stories 
of  terrible  crime,  cruelties,  infamies,  immoralities  and  degra- 
dation. Following  the  death  of  Ivan  the  Terrible  came  Fedor, 
one  of  his  sons,  who  was  a  weakling  in  the  hands  of  the  Duma 
of  five,  one  of  whom  was  Boris  Godounoff.  Fedor  reigned  but 
a  few  years,  and  Godounoff  was  elected  Czar.    He  was  am- 


OUTLINE  MAP  OF  THE  BALKAN  STATES. 
Tills  drawing  shows  the  boundary  lines  as  they  were  at  the  beginning 
of  the  war.  It  also  shows  the  location  of  the  principal  city  of  each  country. 
This  part  of  the  v/orld  has  always  been  of  great  importance  since  the  earliest 
history  of  man  and  nations — a  continuous  struggle  between  nations  to  con- 
trol this  gateway  into   soutiiwestem  Asia, 


375 


276  THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR. 

bitious,  and  was  founder  of  the  system  of  serfdom,  and  also  of 
the  Russian  State  Church,  and  like  many  of  the  other  rulers  of 
Russia,  met  death  through  infamy,  supposedly  having  been 
poisoned. 

BASE  IMPOSTER  SLAIN. 
Boris  Godounoff  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Feodor,  but  he 
was  seized  by  a  pretender,  and  with  his  mother,  thrown  into 
prison,  where  they  were  murdered.  The  discovery  of  the  plot 
which  was  laid  at  the  door  of  the  King  of  Poland,  produced  an 
uprising  and  Czar  Dimitry  the  Impostor,  was  slain.  Vasili 
Shouyskie,  leader  of  the  mob  that  slew  Dimitry,  was  pro- 
claimed Czar,  but  pretenders  sprang  up,  and  one  of  these,  who 
posed  as  a  false  Dimitry,  invaded  Russia  from  Poland,  and 
established  a  rival  imperial  court  at  Toushin,  and  some  of  the 
Russian  cities  swore  allegiance  to  him. 

Vasili  Shouyskie  held  out  at  Moscow,  and  after  a  time 
[Dimitry 's  cause  failed,  whereupon  Sigsmund,  of  Poland,  in- 
vaded Russia,  and  put  forward  his  son  Vladislav.  Vasili, 
roused  to  anger,  committed  acts  which  provoked  Moscow,  and 
in  1610  he  was  compelled  to  abdicate,  and  a  council  of  nobles 
was  formed  to  run  the  government  until  a  Czar  could  be 
chosen.  Vladislav  was  finally  selected,  but,  Feodor  Romanoff 
sought  to  prevent  his  being  crowned.  There  was  a  period  of 
anarchy,  cities  were  burned,  and  chaos  was  complete. 

The  dignitaries  of  the  church  and  state  finally  set  to  work 
and  supported  the  candidacy  of  Mikhial  Feodorovitch  Roman- 
off, who  was  the  first  Romanoff  Czar.  He  reorganized  the 
empire,  and  reigned  for  thirty-three  years.  His  successor, 
Alexis,  the  direct  heir,  reigned  for  thirty-one  years,  and  culti- 
vated friendly  relations  with  Ukraine  and  the  Cossack  coun- 
try. He  was  followed  by  Feodor  II,  and  then  came  Peter  the 
Great.  There  were  two  claimants  to  the  throne,  Ivan  and 
Peter,  both  sons  of  Alexis  by  separate  wives,  and  the  difficulty 
was  settled  by  letting  the  two  reign  jointly  under  the  regency 
of  Sophia,  a  sister  of  Ivan^ 


THE  NATIONS  AT  WAK.  277 

"When  Ivan  died  Peter  assumed  the  reins,  and  it  was  he 
who  gave  Russia  a  frontage  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  on  the  Bal- 
tic, and  built  St.  Petersburg.  He  did  much  for  the  develop- 
ment of  Russia,  creating  a  navy  and  a  merchantile  marinp. 

Catherine  the  First,  his  widow,  followed  him  in  reign,  and 
at  her  death,  Peter  II  occupied  the  center  of  the  stage.  At  his 
death  there  was  chaos  again  and  coimter  claims.  Anna  of 
Courtland,  a  daughter  of  Ivan,  brother  of  Peter  the  Great, 
was  finally  elected  sovereign,  but  she  was  a  mere  puppet,  vest- 
ing her  authority  in  a  High  Council. 

FAMILY'S  WRETCHED  CAREER. 

During  her  reign  her  lover,  named  Biren,  held  sway  and 
distinguished  himself  by  sending  thousands  of  political  exiles 
to  Siberia.  At  the  death  of  Anna,  Ivan  IV,  her  grandnephew, 
reigned,  but  was  deposed  and  sent  to  prison  for  life,  while 
Elizabeth,  youngest  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  succeeded 
him.  She  permitted  the  government  to  be  run  on  compari- 
tively  honest  lines  by  favorites,  and  while  they  ruled  she  drank 
herself  to  death. 

Her  nephew,  Peter  III,  succeeded  her.  He  was  incom- 
petent and  a  tool  in  the  Prussian  hands.  His  wife  was  a 
German  princess,  and  led  a  movement  v/hich  ended  in  his  being 
deposed,  imprisoned  and  murdered. 

Catherine,  widow  of  the  murdered  Peter,  succeeded.  She 
was  known  as  Catherine  the  Great,  and  is  credited  with  having 
been  the  most  infamous  of  women  in  all  history.  Catherine 
was  succeeded  by  Paul,  who  was  assassinated  by  his  own 
couriers  when  he  v/as  on  the  point  of  joining  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte in  his  conquest  of  India. 

His  son  was  Alexander  I,  who  added  Finland  and  Poland 
to  Russia,  and  founded  the  Holy  Alliance.  He  was  followed 
by  his  son  Nicholas,  who  ruled  for  30  years,  and  crushed  the 
Poles  and  Hungarians,  but  died  of  a  broken  heart  in  the 
Crimean  War. 


278  THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR 

Next  came  Alexander  II,  who  gained  fame  as  liberator 
of  the  serfs,  and  died  the  victim  of  a  Nihilist  bomb  thrower. 
Alexander  III  succeeded  him,  and  then  came  Nicholas  II,  the 
last  Czar,  whose  reign  lasted  22  years.  The  beginning  of  the 
end  was  marked  by  the  request  of  the  workingmen  in  1905  for 
an  increase  in  civil  rights.  They  were  fired  upon,  and  there 
was  general  disorder,  until  the  Czar  proclaimed  a  constitution, 
and  established  a  Duma,  or  national  parliament,  which  met  for 
the  first  time  in  1906. 

#         BETRAYAL  OF   RUSSIA'S   MILITARY  PLANS. 

The  outbreak  of  the  war  was  marked  by  the  personal 
decree  of  the  Czar  to  change  the  name  of  the  capital,  St.  Peters- 
burg, to  Petrograd,  but  his  evident  intent  to  eliminate  evidences 
of  German  influence  did  not  stop  the  betrayal  of  Russia's 
military  plans  by  German  spys  within  the  court  circles,  and 
it  was  charged  that  supplies  were  withheld  from  the  Russian 
army  by  those  within  the  charmed  circle,  who  were  friendly 
to  Germany. 

Russia  was  a  party  to  the  Franco-Russian  and  Anglo- 
Russian  agreement,  which  constituted  the  basis  of  the  Triple 
Entente,  but  conditions  were  such  that  the  soldiers  refused  to 
fight,  and  the  situation  culminated  in  the  uprising  which  ended 
with  the  abdication  of  the  C;zar,  in  behalf  of  his  brother,  who, 
however,  declined  to  accept  the  throne,  unless  he  should  be 
elected  by  the  votes  of  the  Russian  people.  The  Duma  there- 
upon decided  to  organize  a  republican  form  of  government, 
and  so  the  Russian  Republic  came  into  being  in  March,  1917. 

Spain,  a  fertile  country  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
Europe,  has  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  development  of 
the  world.  She  has  a  coastline  extending  nearly  1500  miles, 
and  there  are  about  200,000  square  miles  included  in  her  terri- 
tory. The  coastlands  and  the  southern  section  of  the  country 
are    especially    rich    in    fruits    and    agriculture.      Although 


THE  NATIONS  AT  WAK.  279 

watered  by  many  rivers,  the  land,  for  the  most  part,  is  artifici- 
ally irrigated. 

Up  until  1898  Spain  held  possession  of  magnificent  colo- 
nies in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippines,  but  now  her 
colonial  possessions  are  confined  to  a  strip  on  the  west  coast  of 
the  Sahara,  and  the  island  of  Fernando  Po,  with  some  smaller 
possessions  on  the  Guinea  coast  in  Africa.  Their  total  area  is 
about  434,000  square  miles,  the  total  population  being 
10,000,000. 

SPAIN,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Spain  formerly  composed  the  ancient  provinces  of  New 
and  Old  Castile,  Leon,  Asturias,  Galicia,  Estremadura, 
Andalusia,  Aragon,  Murcia,  Valencia,  Catalonia,  Navarre  and 
the  Basque  Provinces.  These,  since  1834,  have  been  divided 
into  49  provinces.  The  capital  of  Spain  is  Madrid,  and  the 
present  constitution  dates  from  1876.  There  is  a  Congress, 
which  is  composed  of  deputies,  each  one  representing  50,000  of 
the  population. 

The  Roman  Catholic  faith  is  the  established  form  of 
religion,  and  the  priesthood  possesses  considerable  wealth  and 
power,  although  the  dominant  influence  once  possessed  has 
been  curtailed  of  recent  years.  The  peace  strength  of  the 
army  is  about  83,000,  and  what  navy  she  has  is  practically 
new,  as  the  Spanish  navy  was  annihilated  in  the  war  with  the 
United  States  in  1898. 

During  recent  years  the  republican  tendencies  among  the 
people  have  found  vent  in  socialism.  The  Spanish  socialist 
leaders  belong  mostly  to  the  intellectuals,  and  here  again  is 
the  weakness  of  the  movement,  whether  considered  as  a  means 
of  giving  Spain  a  republic  or  of  liberating  her  political  system 
undejr  monarchical  form.  Some  of  the  intellectual  leaders 
among  the  socialists  headed  straight  for  philosophic  anarchy, 
while  others  expended  their  energies  in  building  castles  in  the 
clouds. 


280  THE  NATIONS  AT  WAR. 

The  substantial  socialism  of  the  recent  period  was,  how- 
ever, based  on  the  workingmen's  movement.  Before  the  out- 
break of  the  great  war  the  tendency  was  to  affiliate  with  the 
groups  in  other  countries  of  Europe  which  advocated  socialism 
as  an  international  creed.  But  when  the  German  socialists 
placed  their  country  above  internationalism,  and  the  French 
socialists  did  the  same,  and  the  Italian  socialists  joined  in  the 
agitation  to  force  the  government  into  war  to  get  back  terri- 
tory lost  to  Austria,  the  international  basis  of  Spanish  sociahsm 
disappeared. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

MODEEN  WAR  METHODS. 

Individual  Initiative  as  Against  Mass  Movements— Trench  Warfare  a  Game 
OF  Hide  and  Seek — Eats  and  Disease — Surgery's  Triumphs — ^Changed  Tac- 
tics— Itatjan  Mountain  Fighting. 

WARFARE  such  as  carried  on  in  the  Great  World  War 
is  so  different  from  that  of  any  other  of  the  great  wars 
which  the  world  has  seen,  that  it  might  be  described  as 
a  method  of  fighting  distinctively  unique.  Undoubtedly,  more 
ancient  methods,  and  even  ancient  weapons,  have  been  em- 
ployed than  were  used  in  any  of  the  wars  which  have  changed, 
from  time  to  time,  the  boundary  lines  of  nations.  The  fighting 
of  mass  against  mass  has  been  practically  obhterated,  and  mod- 
em evolutions  where  the  plan  is  man  to  man  have  developed 
a  mode  of  fighting  where  terrible  execution  has  resulted. 

[Undoubtedly  this  means  of  fighting  has  developed  the  per- 
sonal initiative  of  the  soldiers,  and  the  modern  fighting  ma- 
chine of  the  nations  is  of  a  high  standard,  which,  together  with 
death-dealing  weapons,  has  resulted  in  terrible  havoc. 
Massed  movements,  such  as  carried  on  in  the  War  of  the  Re- 
bellion, have  been  practically  done  away  with,  and  although 
there  have  been  long  and  costly  sieges,  they  have  been  carried 
on  by  tedious  trench  fighting,  airships,  hand  grenades,  and 
massive  shells  fired  from  guns  of  great  cahber,  and  with  a 
range  which  is  really  marvellous. 

Shells  are  fired,  shrapnel  in  some  cases,  explosive  shells  in 
others,  which  are  timed  to  the  second,  so  that  when  fired  from 
guns  many  miles  from  the  objective  point,  they  explode  at  a 
measured  distance  from  the  earth.  They  are  exploded  within 
a  gauged  distance  of  the  target,  and  the  execution  is  done  over 
a  measured  area.  On  the  shells  are  indicators.  Within  the 
shrapnel  shells  are  hundreds  of  small  shot.    As  the  shell  ex- 

281 


282  MUDEfiN  WAR  METHODS. 

plodes  the  shots  are  scattered  over  the  enemy,  and  death  and 
destruction  are  unavoidable. 

With  bomb  sheUs,  fired  from  guns  of  the  largest  caliber, 
there  are  also  mdicators  which  are  timed  to  the  second.    Th-^ 

tTfb 'i?    *T/  '^P'"'^*?"  ^'•'^°"^^y  ^S^'^  °"t  ty  officers: 
the  sheU  explodes  where  it  is  intended  that  it  shaD,  and  the 
work  of  the  great  explosive  is  done  with  resultant  damage. 
WAR'S  MANY  DEVELOPMENTS. 
The  wa,r  has  developed  many  of  the  new  methods  of  fight- 
ing and  revived  many  of  the  old  means  of  warfare.    CavaL-y 
has  not  been  as  aetzve  in  the  relation  in  the  great  war  as  in  any 
of  the  wars  of  comparatively  recent  date,  because  of  the  ex- 
tensive trench  warfare  which  has  formed  so  much  of  the  fight- 
wi      W      ?i^^  5f  ^"'"  ^  1"^^*^°'^  «f  t^e'ich  raids,  Ind 
trf'Tf '•    "^"""-^  ^  '^'  ^"^^'^^^y  ^^-^«  through  shell 
r\  I     J^Pr^^^'on  ^^onght  home  to  the  modern  observer 
IS  that  the  older  recognized  methods  of  warfare  are  gone  for 
good.  '^ 

The  thing  which  war  changed  in  the  work  of  the  cavah-y- 
man  is  m  the  nature  of  an  addition,  rather  than  a  subtraction 
Irom  his  duties  and  the  training  he  must  have.  The  day  of 
cavahy^as  cavah-y  and  nothing  els^has  passed.  Tor  today 
the  cavalryman  must  be  familiar  not  only  with  the  sword,  lance 
and  revolver,  but  with  the  rifle  as  weU.  It  has  been  demon- 
strated that  such  long  periods  of  trench  warfare  may  develop 
that  It  becomes  necessary  for  him  to  dismount  and  make  him- 
selt  valuable  in  the  scheme  of  military  economy  by  fighting  as 
infa_ntry  until  such  time  as  the  enemy  line  is  broken  and  he  can 
agam  take  to  his  horse  and  the  work  of  harrying  the  retreat- 
ing foe. 

The  war  has  been  full  of  surprising  results  as  regards  cav- 
alry. It  was  popularly  supposed  that  in  facing  such  terrible 
modern  weapons  as  the  repeating  rifle  of  long  range,  the  ma- 
chme  gun  and  the  automatic  field  pieces  which  have  become  so 


MODERN  WAR  METHODS.  283 

well  known  as  the  French  *'75s,"  any  body  of  cavalry  which 
attempted  to  charge  the  enemy  would  be  annihilated. 
CAVALRY'S  SUCCESSFUL  CHARGES. 
Yet  all  through  the  early  stages  of  the  war  one  reads  of 
desperate,  and,  what  is  more  to  the  point,  successful  charges 
made  by  British  cavalry  against  batteries  of  German  field 
pieces.  There  was  one  instance  in  France,  just  back  of  the 
Belgian  frontier,  where  a  charge  of  British  lancers  against  a 
German  battery,  which  had  a  commanding  position,  saved  the 
day  for  a  greatly-outnumbered  allied  detachment,  which  was 
conducting  that  most  difficult  of  all  maneuvers,  a  rear  guard 
action,  covering  the  retreat  of  the  body  of  the  army.  The 
charge  of  the  lancers  took  the  Germans  so  by  surprise,  and  was 
executed  with  such  speed,  that  despite  the  heavy  fire  they 
poured  into  the  advancing  horsemen  the  latter  were  at  work 
among  them  with  spear  and  saber  before  reinforcements  could 
be  brought  up.  Then  the  cavaby,  dismounting  and  unslinging 
their  carbines,  defended  the  position  with  such  tenacity  that  the 
German  advance  was  delayed  several  hours,  suiScient  for  the 
rest  of  the  allied  forces  to  make  good  its  withdrawal  and  the 
consolidation  of  the  new  lines  chosen  for  defense. 

This  idea  of  cavalry  serving  in  the  double  role  of  infantry 
and  cavalry  is  a  distinctly  American  development,  a  trick  which 
the  Federal  and  Confederate  armies  taught  the  world  during 
the  Civil  War,  and  of  which  the  British  made  excellent  use  in 
South  Africa  against  the  Boers.  The  fact  which  this  war  has 
established,  however,  is  that  the  older  use  of  cavalry,  in  the 
charge  against  infantry,  artillery  and  even  entrenched  posi- 
tions is  still  of  great  value.  The  idea  had  developed  from  the 
tactics  so  largely  employed  in  the  Civil  War  of  using  the  cav* 
airy  as  mounted  infantry,  that  the  mcreased  deadliness  of 
modern  weapons  would  make  this  Ub3  of  cavalry  the  sole  use. 

Now,  however,  it  seems  that  not  even  the  lance  is  to  be 
discounted.    Given  the  opportunity  to  reach  his  objective,  the 


284  MODERN  WAR  METHODS. 

lance  becomes  a  terrible  weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  horseman. 
In  hand-to-hand  fighting  the  man  with  the  rifle  and  bayonet 
has  some  chance  against  the  momited  man  with  the  saber. 
While  fighting  upward  from  a  lower  level  he  has  a  pretty  long 
reach,  and  the  advantage  of  being  completely  in  control  of  his 
own  movements,  whereas  even  the  most  expert  horseman  can- 
not control  the  step  and  movement  of  his  momit  as  well  as  a 
man  can  control  his  own.  Barring  fire,  however,  the  infantry- 
man has  no  chance  against  the  lance,  with  the  speed  and  mo- 
mentmn  of  the  moimted  man  behind  it. 

So,  for  this  reason,  though  they  are  cumbersome  weapons 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  and  make  a  detachment  equip- 
ped with  them  much  more  likely  to  be  seen,  lances  were  re- 
tained by  many  of  the  British  cavaby  regiments,  just  as  the 
German  Uhlans  retained  them.        -  - 

CAVALRY'S  IMPORTANT  SERVICE. 
One  of  the  most  important  services  which  cavahy  fulfills 
in  modern  warfare  is  that  of  drawing  the  enemy's  fire  at  the 
time  his  positions  are  bejng  approached.    This  is  done  to  ob- 
tain  some  idea  of  his  force  and  the  disposition  of  his  guns. 

Cavalry  detachments  are  sent  scurrying  across  the  front, 
as  though  threatening  an  attack,  deliberately  furnishing  a  mark 
for  the  enemy  gunners  that  this  object  of  ascertaining  his 
strength  may  be  attained. 

The  more  ordinary  work  of  scouting,  advance  g-uard  work, 
and  nding  wide  on  the  flanks  of  an  advancing  force  are  parts 
of  the  cavalryman's  work  which  are  more  famihar. 

In  the  European  conflict  with  tremendous  concentration  of 
troops  and  continued  occupation  of  the  same  territory  the  for- 
aging feature  of  cavalry  work  disappeared.  It  is  no  longer 
possible  for  an  army  to  "live  on  the  country  as  it  goes."  Pood 
and  supplies  must  be  brought  up  from  depots  in  the  rear 
through  an  entirely  separate  and  specialized  department  of  the 
naUitary  organization,  which  does  its  work  with  a  celerity  cer- 


MODEEN  WAE  METHODS.  285 

tainly  undreamed  of  in  former  days,  even  as  late  as  om*  own 
war  with  Spain. 

In  the  modern  campaign  trenches  have  been  developed  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  is  really  marvellous  how  the  soldiers  live, 
and  to  what  an  extent  the  "underground  fortresses"  have  been 
used  for  living  as  well  as  fighting  purposes. 

In  a  letter  written  by  a  French  soldier  who  took  part  in  a 
successful  raid  upon  a  German  trench,  he  adequately  describes 
the  luxuries  enjoyed  by  the  German  soldiers  in  the  front  line 
trenches  in  the  Marne.  The  letter  was  written  by  a  youth  who 
had  been  wounded  in  the  fight,  and  was  mailed  in  April,  1917^. 

'  LUXURIOUS  DUGOUTS. 

*'We  are  now  living  in  German  lines  and  dugouts — a  mag- 
nificent work  we  have  just  now  taken — cement  and  steel  are 
used  with  profusion,  and  electricity  in  every  dugout,  even  in 
their  front  lines.  Unharmed  casements  and  machine  guns  in 
cemented  shelters  and  light  railways  and  immense  reserves  of 
food — thousands  of  bottles  of  claret. 

"But  also,  at  the  middle  of  each  staircase,  in  the  wall,  a 
box  with  about  seventy  pounds  of  cheddite — to  blow  the  shelter 
up  in  case  of  retreat.  They  knew  they  might  have  to  go  back, 
as  they  are  doing  now.  America  will  gain  victory,  as  until  the 
present  moment  only  the  bravery  of  our  soldiers  can  put  them 
back,  with  much  exertion  and  frequent  loss. 

"Our  men  are  magnificent  in  spite  of  death.  We  hope 
your  help  may  be  quick  and  decisive.  I  think  your  flying  corps 
especially  may  be  useful,  the  more  as  yesterday,  with  four  fel- 
lows, I  was  run  through  the  field,  and  in  a  destroyed  trench  by 
a  German  Albatross  shooting  a  machine  gun,  and  flying  very 
low,  he  missed  us  quite  near.  On  the  other  hand,  we  have  just 
a  few  days  hence  seen  a  sausage  balloon  destroyed  by  our  men. 
Anyhow  your  help  may  be  decisive. 

*'I  believe  your  joy  is  great  about  the  Russian  revolution. 


JSB  MODEEN  WAE  METHODS. 

At  home  they  are  happy,  too— only  let  us  hope  the  Russian 
army  may  attack  this  summer — ^to  help  us. 

"I  need  not  tell  you  the  impression  made  by  your  Ameri- 
can decision  here.  We  now  know  victory  is  sure.  Let  us  hope 
it  may  be  this  year— though  you  may  easily  guess  such  is  not 
my  belief — ^next  year. 

'1  hope  my  next  letter  be  sent  from  farther  in  the  Ger- 
man lines— perhaps  from  a  place  they  have  not  had  time  to 
destroy." 

Shorn  of  all  technicalities,  the  plain  method  of  warfare 
which  has  developed  as  the  result  of  the  trench  building  is  that 
each  force  estabhshes  lines  along  miles  of  front  with  trenches 
in  rows,  one  after  the  other,  at  measured  intervals.  The  sol- 
diers are  thus  "entrenched."  One  force  seeks  to  drive  the  other 
from  its  position. 

MANY  DEADLY  DEVICES. 
The  force  of  batteries  is  directed  against  the  entrench- 
ments, hand  grenades,  bombs,  shells,  gases  and  every  device 
which  has  fallen  to  the  use  of  armies  is  projected  at  the  ditches 
in  which  are  hidden  the  enemy  soldiers.  When,  by  the  con- 
centration of  attack  the  trenches  are  destroyed  or  the  soldiers 
driven  from  their  first  position,  the  opposing  force  has  gained 
if  it  has  succeeded  in  advancing  its  own  soldiers  to  occupy  and 
reconstruct  the  trenches  or  defences  from  which  the  enemy  was 
driven. 

The  soldiers  carry,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  weapons, 
a  trench  spade,  and  in  most  cases  large  knives,  which  are  used 
to  cut  away  brush  or  dig  in  the  earth  when  emergency  demands. 
The  close  confinement  in  the  trenches  tends  to  develop  disease, 
and  the  sanitary  force  of  the  modern  army  is  a  thing  that  was 
undreamed  of  in  the  olden  days.  More  men  died  from  disease 
during  the  Civil  War  than  were  killed  by  bullets  or  in  hand-to- 
hand  encounter. 

The  percentage  of  those  who  die  from  camp  fever  has  been 


MODEEN  WAR  METHODS.  287 

reduced  to  a  minimum,  Napoleon  said  that  armies  travel  on 
their  stomachs,  but  the  European  War  and  the  Russian-Jap- 
anese War  have  proven,  as  did  our  campaigns  in  Cuba  and 
Mexico,  that  soldiers  live  by  reason  of  the  health  which  they 
are  permitted  to  maintain.  Some  idea  of  the  conditions  which 
developed  in  the  trenches  may  be  gained  from  a  study  of  the 
various  hospital  reports,  and  investigations  which  have  been 
made  by  physicians. 

INFECTED  V/ITH  ASIATIC  JAUNDICE. 

Dr.  Hideyo  Noguchi,  of  the  Rockefeller  Institute  for 
Medical  Research,  completed  a  series  of  experiments  which 
showed  that  apparently  healthy  wild  rats  in  the  European  war 
zone  became  infected  with  Weil's  disease,  or  ''infectious  jaun- 
dice," common  in  Asia.  Weil's  disease  is  characterized  by  sud- 
den onsets  of  malaise,  often  intense  muscular  pain,  high  fever 
for  several  days,  followed  by  jaundice,  frequently  accompanied 
by  complications.  It  becomes  more  virulent  as  it  is  successively 
transmitted  from  one  victim  to  another.  This  is  supposed  to 
explain  the  much  greater  mortality,  about  38  per  cent,  in 
SJapan,  as  compared  with  from  2  to  3  per  cent,  among  Euro- 
pean soldiers. 

The  study  of  the  disease  was  made  possible  by  the  suc- 
cessful importation  from  Japan  and  Flanders  of  guinea  pigs 
and  rats  which  had  been  inoculated  with  the  causative  organism 
in  those  two  countries.  Experiments  previously  made  showed 
that  the  germ  of  the  disease  was  carried  in  the  kidneys  of  a 
large  percentage  of  apparently  healthy  wild  rats  caught  near 
the  districts  where  the  disease  had  been  epidemic.  Experi- 
ments in  Europe  demonstrated  the  presence  of  the  germ  in 
rats  not  only  near  the  infected  zones,  but  also  in  captured  lo- 
calities some  distance  from  trenches. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  Dr.  Noguchi  collected  a  num- 
ber of  rats  in  this  country  and  removed  their  kidneys.  His 
report  states  that  by  inoculating  the  emulsion  made  of  the  kid- 


X    288  MODERN  WAR  METHODS. 

neys  of  41  wild  rats  into  58  guinea  pigs  during  a  period  of 
three  months,  he  had  been  able  to  produce  in  three  groups  of 
guinea  pigs  typical  cases  of  infectious  jaundice  altogether  iden- 
tical with  the  findings  in  the  guinea  pigs  which  died  of  the 
injection  of  the  Japanese  and  Belgian  strains  of  the  disease. 
The  germs  taken  from  wild  rats  caught  near  New  York  pro- 
duced death  in  guinea  pigs  within  nine  to  twelve  days. 
AMERICA'S  GREAT  SERVICE  IN  WAR  ZONE. 
In  studying  the  conditions  and  helping  to  fight  the  dan- 
gers encountered  in  the  battlefields  and  camps  of  Europe,  no 
country  in  the  world  rendered  a  greater  service  than  America. 
Long  before  the  country  entered  the  war  hundreds  of  Ameri- 
can nurses,  ambulance  drivers  and  surgeons  were  on  the  battle- 
fields and  in  the  hospitals  of  Belgium,  France  and  England. 
Men  who  were  leaders  in  the  medical  and  surgical  world  gave 
their  services  to  the  Allies,  and  almost  every  hospital  in  the 
United  States  sent  some  of  its  staff. 

Through  the  efforts  and  study  of  Dr.  Alexis  Carrel,  of 
New  York,  deaths  from  wounds  received  in  battle  were  re- 
duced almost  90  per  cent,  by  a  system  of  treatment  which  he 
devised.  Dr.  Carrel  began  his  work  in  1914,  at  Compiegne, 
in  connection  with  the  military  hospital,  and  in  collaboration 
with  the  Dakin  Research  Laboratory,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Kockef  eller  Foundation. 

Using  a  solution  of  sodimn  hypochlorite,  the  plain  method 
of  treating  wounds, which  proved  such  a  great  boon,  was  de- 
scribed at  the  Congress  of  Surgeons  in  Philadelphia  in  1916, 
where  many  of  the  wonders  of  war  surgery  were  described. 
By  means  of  a  rubber  tube,  which  is  run  through  or  into  the 
wound,  the  injury  is  flushed  continuously  by  the  solution,  for 
a  period  of  hours  or  minutes^,  according  to  the  nature  and  char- 
acter of  the  wound. 

The  inflammation  is  reduced,  the  wound  cleaned,  and 
blood  poisoning  is  averted,    Under  the  treatment  the  soldier's 


MODERN  WAR  METHODS.  289 

stay  in  a  hospital  is  reduced  weeks  and  even  months,  and,  as 
has  been  stated  with  authority,  where  in  the  old  days  twenty 
operations  would  have  been  necessary,  the  modern  methods 
have  reduced  the  percentage  to  a  point  where  the  twenty  has 
become  as  one. 

The  story  of  sm^gery  itself  and  what  it  has  done  in  mod- 
ern warfare  would  make  a  wonderful  volume.  The  shattered 
bones  of  the  legs  and  arms  have  been  spliced,  and  laid  side  by 
side  in  open  wounds,  to  knit  together  and  practically  form  a 
new  limb.  Artificial  hands,  feet,  and  kgs  have  been  made  by 
ingenious  mechanics,  which  are  so  perfect  that  those  who  h^ve 
been  deprived  of  their  natural  facihties  can  use  them  with  a 
degree  of  facility  never  before  believed  possible. 

RESULT  OF  SCIENTIFIC  SURGERY. 

Armless  men  and  legless  men  have  worked  in  the  munition 
factories  of  both  France  and  of  England,  and  the  fact  that  they 
are  able  to  do  so  is  due  to  tlie  genius  of  surgeons  and  of  scien- 
tists. Thoroughness  and  preparation,  coolness  in  execution 
and  scientific  accuracy  in  all  directions  is  the  modern  necessity 
in  warfare. 

"V^Tiat  this  means  in  modern  battle,  as  demonstrated  in  the 
last  important  conflict  in  the  clearing  of  German  East  Africa 
by  British  forces,  was  decribed  by  Reuters'  correspondent  in 
an  accoimt  ef  the  battle  of  Rufiji  River. 

This  was  the  last  campaign  personally  conmianded  by 
Major  General  Jan  Christian  Smuts,  the  former  Boer  com- 
mander, and  resulted  in  giving  the  British  control  of  all  the 
coastline  and  the  inhabitable  portion  of  German  East  Africa. 

For  two  weary  months  the  army  lay  upon  its  v/eapons, 
consolidating,  reorganizing,  rebuilding  railway  lines  and  pil- 
ing up  great  dumps  of  food  and  ridding  itself  of  its  sick  and 
wounded.  Then  it  moved  forward  from  Morogoro.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  advance  was  the  ejection  of  the  enemy  from  his 


290  MODERN  WAR  METHODS. 

trenches  on  the  Mgeta  River  and  the  seizure  of  the  passages 
of  the  Rufiji  River. 

The  battle  was  directed  and  controlled  from  an  observa- 
tion hill  at  Dathumi,  but  General  Smuts  spent  little  time  on 
the  hill.  He  had  made  all  the  dispositions  and  issued  his  orders. 
jSTothing  remained  for  him  to  do  and  he  was  back  in  his  camp 
calmly  reading  a  book. 

In  the  straw  hut  the  brigadier  general  sat  at  a  table  on 
which  was  an  oriented  map  showing  the  strategic  and  geo- 
graphical points  of  the  plans  which  lay  before  us,  at  his  elbow 
the  telephone  and  just  below  the  hut  the  wireless  instrument 
incessantly  emitted  sparks.  Higher  up  the  slope  of  the  hill 
were  the  observing  stations  of  the  battery  commanders. 
SIGNALED  BEGINNING  OF  BATTLE. 

The  burning  of  huts  at  Kiruru  signaled  the  beginning  of 
the  battle.  The  brigadier  general,  a  polite  httle  man  who  has 
lectured  at  the  staff  college  for  twenty  years  and  who  knows 
the  last  word  in  the  science  of  warfare,  especially  of  artillery, 
called  the  howitzer  battery  by  telephone. 

''Open  fire  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  palm  tree,"  he  said. 
"You  have  the  elevation  and  direction.  The  Nigerians  will  be 
on  the  move."  Just  behind  the  palm  tree  and  a  little  to  the 
right  a  great  brown  cloud  of  mud  and  smoke  rose  high  in  the 
air.  From  the  plain  came  the  boom  of  heavy  guns  and  all 
along  the  river  branch  rose  clouds  of  smoke,  mud  and  dust. 

The  staff  officer  handed  in  a  telegram  reading:  "The  in- 
fantry are  now  about  to  advance;  they  ask  artillery  support." 

"Bring  the  field  guns  into  action,"  said  the  general. 

It  was  all  so  very  matter  of  fact.  This  little  man,  who 
was  about  to  let  loose  upon  the  German  trenches  a  hell's  broth 
of  fire  and  disaster,  acted  as  if  he  were  in  his  own  drawing 
room,  deciding  how  many  lumps  of  sugar  he  would  take  with 
his  tea. 

Down  below  on  the  plain  the  howitzers  were  lobbing  60- 


MODERlSf  WAE  METHODS.  291 

pound  shells  into  the  German  Askaris,  the  Nigerians  were  ad- 
vancing by  sharp  rushes  and  the  rat-tat  of  the  machine  guns 
and  the  crackle  of  musketry  broke  very  faintly.  Airplanes 
sailed  above  us.  A  message  came  from  the  Nigerians,  *'We 
are  going  to  take  the  enemy's  trenches;  please  lift  gunfire." 
The  order  was  passed  along,  "All  guns  lift  two  degrees." 

Little  black  dots,  hke  tiny  ants,  are  running  where  the 
shells  are  bursting.  The  Nigerians  are  rushing  the  trenches. 
The  forward  observing  officer  reports  that  the  enemy  is  re- 
tiring. The  15-pounders,  man-killing  guns,  shower  shrapnel 
on  the  German  line  of  retreat. 

SUGGESTS  A  CUP  OF  TEA. 

The  infantry  report  having  occupied  the  German  first  line 
trenches,  halting  for  one  hour  to  consolidate.  The  brigadier- 
general  commented  on  the  difficulty  of  observation  in  the  hu- 
mid atmosphere  and  suggested  a  cup  of  tea.  It  seemed  that 
nothing  more  would  happen  until  after  lunch,  so  I  visited  the 
commander-in-chief.  He  was  occupied  for  the  moment  with 
a  volume  by  George  Gisslog  and  was  satisfied  with  the  reports 
he  had  received.  By  dark  the  whole  of  the  German  entrench- 
ments were  in  our  hands. 

A  volume  could  be  written  alone  on  the  changes  in  tactics 
which  have  been  developed  and  practiced  by  the  military 
geniuses  of  the  contending  forces.  In  the  European  War  the 
range  of  artillery  and  infantry  fire  was  three  times  what  it  was 
in  the  Franco-Prussian  War.  The  flattening  of  the  trajec- 
tory, which  means  making  the  bullets  go  more  nearly  on  a 
straight  line  instead  of  traveling  in  an  arc,  has  made  the  fire 
so  effective  as  to  compel  the  soldiers  to  "travel  on  their  stom- 
achs." To  crawl  along  the  ground  like  alligators,  or  advance 
like  moles  digging  their  way  into  the  earth. 

The  tremendous  range  of  the  modern  rifle,  single  arm,  or 
rapidfire  gun,  and  the  development  of  more  powerful  explo- 
sives for  ammunition  have  wrought  this  change.  The  bullet  will 


292  MODERN  WAR  METHODS. 

travel  a  longer  distance  at  a  horizontal  position  than  in  the  old 
days  when  ordinary  black  powder  and  a  smooth-bore  gun  were 
used,  and  so  at  hundreds  of  yards  distance  the  soldiers  can  aim 
direct  to  kill,  without  making  elevation  allowances. 

The  machine  gun  has  made  it  possible  for  the  men  to  fire 
from  four  to  five  shots  for  every  one  that  was  fired  in  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  and  probably  ten  for  every  one  that  was 
fired  in  the  Civil  War,  The  only  time  the  soldiers  exposed 
themselves  on  tlie  army  frontiers  were  when  they  were  storm- 
ing trenches,  and  this  was  not  attempted  until  the  trench  had 
suffered  bombardment  so  it  was  made  untenable. 

DIFFICULT  MOUNTAIN  FIGHTING 
Probably  nothing  in  the  warfare  of  nations  has  been  more 
colorful  and  replete  with  surprises  than  the  campaign  waged 
by  the  ItaHan  soldiers  on  the  Alpine  passes  between  Italy  and 
the  Austrian  strongholds,  and  in  the  discussion  of  modern  war- 
fare, a  brief  description  of  some  of  the  work  of  these  intrepid 
mountain  fighters  is  interesting. 

Much  of  this  fighting  has  been  the  most  difficult  known 
in  the  annals  of  modern  warfare,  save,  perhaps,  that  done  by 
the  famous  Younghusband  British  Expedition  to  Thibet.  And 
that,  by  comparison,  was  a  very  small  matter. 

^  The  mere  height— altitude— at  which  the  Itahan  warfare 
against  the  Austrians  was  carried  on  has  been  sufficient  to  en- 
tail enormous  difficulties  and  a  great  additional  strain,  due  act- 
ually to  difficult  breathing  in  a  rarefied  atmosphere. 

The  warfare  in  the  clouds  which  has  characterized  the 
struggle  along  the  Isonzo  front  has  been  conducted  at  an  alti- 
tude seldom  less  than  8,000  and  often  rising  to  12,000  feet, 
which  is  well  within  the  realm  of  eternal  snow. 

]^^aturally,  therefore,  most  of  the  fighting  was  done  in 
bitter  cold.  To  this  fact  add  the  other  that  the  Itahan  soldiers 
who  carried  it  on  were  almost  exclusively  men  who  had  not 
been  accustomed  to  the  cold.     They  had  been  drawn  from 


MODEKN  Y/AR  METHODS.  293 

among  dwellers  in  a  semitropical  climate,  and  one  gets  an  idea 
of  the  immense  accomplishments  of  this  army  wliich  struggled 
in  the  skies. 

The  average  American  knows  the  Italian  as  immensely 
industrious,  but  perhaps  is  disinclined  to  credit  him  with  great 
constructive  ability  or  engineering  genius.  He  w^ouid  change 
his  estimate  of  him  if  he  could  see  him  fight  and  study  his  bat- 
tlefield. The  Italian  warfare  of  the  mountain  peak  and 
gorges  has  been  a  warfare  of  construction,  even  more  tlian  it 
has  been  a  warfare  of  destruction,  and  has  been  rendered  pos- 
sible only  by  the  exercise  of  engineering  genius  comparable 
V'ith  that  which  sent  our  world-beating  American  railways 
through  the  famous  Rocky  Mountain  passes ! 

HALTED    BY   INTIMIDATION. 

The  fact  that  Italy's  warfare  has  been  invariably  against 
positions  stronger  than  her  o^ti  is  the  result  of  the  fact  that 
while,  since  1866,  Austria  continually  strengthened  her  frontier 
with  fortifications,  most  of  them  of  ferro-concrete,  the  Itahans 
v/ere  not  able  to  fortify  at  all.  Every  step  in  that  direction 
brought  forth  threats  of  war.  These  began  at  a  time  when 
Italy  was  in  no  condition  to  fight,  before,  as  a  unified  nation, 
she  became  a  world-power. 

Being  weak,  she  was  prevented  from  making  any  prepa- 
rations for  defense  against  a  foe  which  continually  was  ob- 
viously getting  ready  for  attack  upon  her.  The  mere  com- 
mencement of  preparations  might  have  precipitated  war.  But 
Austria  continually  prepared.  Besides,  the  Itahans  ever  have 
been  a  peace-loving  nation. 

As  a  natural  and  inevitable  consequence  of  all  these  con- 
ditions all  the  dominating  positions  along  the  Austro-Italian 
frontier  were  strongly  fortified  by  the  Austrians.  They  have 
long  occupied  the  crest  of  every  mountain  in  such  a  way  that 
their  guns  could  rake  any  Itahan  approach  from  below,  along 
a  front  of  450  miles — about  the  distance  from  New  York  to 


294  MODERN  WAR  METHODS. 

Buffalo,  and  almost  the  same  as  that  of  the  whole  French- 
British-Belgian  eastern  front  in  this  war. 

During  the  winter  of  1916,  one  of  the  most  exceptionally 
hard  winters  known  in  the  annals  of  the  Italian  Weather  Serv- 
ice, the  Italians  not  only  have  been  fighting  for  their  sunny 
homeland,  but  have  been  fighting  in  a  region  of  eternal  snow. 

This  snow  was  an  obstacle  extremely  hard  to  overcome. 
It  may  be  said  never  to  have  been  less  than  six  yards  deep  on 
the  Isonzo  front,  so  the  task  of  the  consolidation  of  positions, 
enabhng  troops  at  once  to  resist  attack  and  protect  themselves 
from  assault  from  the  rear,  was  highly  difficult. 
TYPICAL  ROAD   BUILDERS. 

The  Italians  were  ever  road-builders,  descendants,  as  they 
are,  of  those  Romans  who  built  roads  for  all  Europe.  While 
the  Austrians  were  fully  supplied  with  roads  of  the  best  and 
most  modern  character,  there  were  hundreds  of  miles  on  the 
Italian  side  where  there  were  not  even  mule-tracks. 

Here  was  a  vast  problem. 

Literally  millions  of  soldiers  were  not  free  to  fight,  but 
had  been  drafted  for  the  road-building  work.  Carrying  picks 
and  shovels,  managing  steam-shovels,  working  electric  hoists, 
stringing  supporting  cables,  they  were  as  truly  fighting  men, 
however,  as  any  who  ever  bore  rifles  or  worked  machine-guns. 

Miles  of  the  roads  were  rebuilt  under  Austrian  fire,  by 
men  who  built  them  weU  enough,  even  in  the  great  8,000-foot 
heights,  that  they  could  bear  heavy  artillery  of  vast  weights 
without  suffering  damage.  They  built  them  in  such  easy  gra- 
dients that  heavy  artillery  could  be  moved  speedily,  the  guns 
and  motor-lorries  that  passed  over  them  frequently  weighing 
as  much  as  fifteen  tons. 

Nor  did  the  problem  end  with  the  construction  of  these 
marvel-roads.  It  was  necessary  to  transport  very  heavy  war 
material  across  stretches  where  the  building  of  any  roads  what- 
ever was  a  sheer  impossibility.    Often  it  was  necessary  to  take 


MODEEN  WAR  METHODS.  205 

heavy  guns  as  far  as  might  be  upon  sleighs  and  then  drag  them 
for  considerable  distances  by  hand ;  quite  as  often  it  was  impera- 
tive that  across  chasms  great  cables  should  be  rigged  on  which 
the  guns  might  be  swung,  sometimes  hundreds  or  even  thou- 
sands of  feet  above  the  valleys  beneath,  from  one  height  to 
another. 

The  "v^reways"  by  which  much  of  this  unique  transporta- 
tion was  accomplished  are  of  Italian  invention,  as  were  other 
notable  and  essential  engineering  devices  of  this  great  war  of 
mountain  transportation. 

Such  contrivances,  known  as  "teleferrica,"  were  intro- 
duced for  the  first  time  during  the  winter  of  1916,  and  by  sum- 
mer there  were  about  200  along  the  mountainous  front.  They 
not  only  supplied  very  advanced  positions  with  armament, 
ammunition  and  food,  but  transported  men  back  and  forth 
between  them  and  lower  points. 

SYSTEM  ONE  OF  TACKLES. 

The  system  was  one  of  tackles  (where  guns  and  other 
heavy  freight  were  to  be  moved)  or  cars  (like  cradles,  where 
men  were  to  be  moved),  operated  by  motor-pulleys  directly 
connected  up  with  great  electric  power.  One  of  the  most  aston- 
ishing and  picturesque  uses  to  which  these  aerial  wireways  were 
put  was  the  movement  downward  of  men  wounded  at  the 
advanced  posts  with  which  the  teleferrica  communicate. 

To  see  wounded  men  going  down  these  wireways,  mere 
dots,  each  representing  a  suspended  stretcher  upon  which  a 
suffering  human  being  is  strapped  securely,  was  described  as 
one  of  the  most  amazing  spectacles  of  the  whole  war.  The 
experience,  to  some  wounded  men,  swinging  sickeningly,  dizzy- 
ingly  alone  in  midair,  was  probably  more  terrifying  than  actual 
fighting,  although  there  were  few,  if  any,  accidents  connected 
with  the  wireways. 

Not  infrequently  these  wireways  were  within  direct  range 
of  the  enemy  fire,  and  that  complicated  matters.    So  far  as  is 


296  MODEEN  "WAE  METHODS. 

known,  there  has  been  no  instance  of  a  cable  cut  by  gunfire,  but 
in  several  districts  it  was  necessary  that  the  men,  going  to  their 
duty  and  the  wounded  going  backward,  having  done  theirs, 
must  needs  be  protected  in  armored  baskets,  somewhat  like 
those  which  often  are  swung  beneath  :)bservation  balloons  on 
the  various  fronts. 

PROBLEMS   OF  TRANSPORTATION. 

The  problems  of  transportation,  great  as  they  are,  are  by 
no  means  the  only  unique  difficulties  presented  to  these  brave 
mountain  fighters.  In  this  extraordinary  warfare  mining  by 
means  of  high  explosives  was  carried  on  upon  a  hitherto  un~ 
equaled  scale.  Such  work  with  high  explosives  was  not  onty 
continually  necessary  in  the  construction  of  roads  and  fortifi- 
cations in  a  region  of  solid  rock,  but  sometimes  proved  the  only 
effective  means  of  attack  upon  the  enemy. 

The  mine  was  used  as  an  offensive  weapon  by  both  sides, 
and  often  with  very  terrible  results. 

Perhaps  the  most  extraordinary  of  the  campaign  was  the 
mine  laid  by  the  Italians  after  infinitely  difficult  and  very  ex- 
tensive tunneling  in  solid  rock  at  the  Cima  del  Col  di  Lana. 

This  immense  effort  with  explosives  blew  off  the  whole  top 
of  a  mountain — and  that  mountaintop  was  thickly  occupied  by 
Austrians  at  the  time  of  the  explosion  of  the  mine.  None  on 
the  Italian  side  knows  exactly  what  the  Austrian  casualties 
were,  but  it  is  certain  that  through  this  one  explosion  more  than 
an  entire  company — that  is,  more  than  400 — of  the  enemy's 
soldiers  were  destroyed. 

An  interesting  detail  of  this  operation  is  the  fact  that 
v/hile  the  Itahans  were  tunneling  for  this  great  mine  they  were 
perfectly  aware  that  the  Austrians  also  were  at  work  upon  a 
similar  effort.  It  amounted  to  a  race  with  death,  and  the 
Italians  won  it. 

Correspondents  agree  that  the  thing  which  most  impresses 
the  visitor  to  the  mountain  fronts  of  the  Italian  army  is  the 


MODERN  WAR  METHODS.  297 

immense  patience  which  it  has  shown  in  the  face  of  the  difficult 
tasks  of  this  astonishing  campaign.  Itahaas  usually  are  re- 
garded as  temperamental  creatures,  but  "dogged"  has  been  the 
word  which  has  meant  most  in  this  campaign. 

Some  of  the  movements  of  troops  across  exposed  snow- 
covered  spaces  have  been  marvels  of  incredible  patience.  To 
escape  observation  the  soldiers  have  been  clad  in  white  clothing, 
but  in  addition  to  this  it  has  been  necessary  for  them  to  lie  flat 
upon  their  faces  in  the  snow,  moving  very,  very  slowly,  accom- 
plishing their  transfers  from  point  to  point  literally  at  snail 
speed. 

With  regard  to  such  work,  as  with  regard  to  the  Italian 
wounded,  one  thing  is  remarked  by  all  the  officers  and  those 
who  have  been  privileged  even  for  a  short  time  to  share  the 
hardships  of  the  Italian  "common  soldier."  He  never  com- 
plains. Healthy  or  hurt,  weary  or  fresh,  he  takes  war  with  a 
smile  full  of  flashing  teeth  and  with  eyes  glittering  with  interest 
and  good  nature. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR, 

She  has  Won  "Heb  Place  in  the  Sun" — Eich  and  Poob  in  the  Munitions 
Factoeies — NuESE  and  Ambulance  Deiveb — Khaki  and  Teousebs — Obqan- 
izEB  and  Faemee — Heboes  in  the  Steess  of  Ciecumstances — ^Doinq  Men's 
WoBK  FOB  Men — ^Even  a  "Bobbie." 

IF  IT  were  ever  really  necessary  for  woman  to  "win  a  place 
in  the  sun"  she  has  done  so  by  her  activities  with  relation 

to  the  war.  We  have  regarded  woman  with  a  high  degree 
of  sentimentality,  and  to  her  pleas  for  recognition  in  world 
affairs  have  shrugged  our  shoulders  and  intimated  that  she  was 
fit  to  bear  children,  nurse  the  sick,  do  household  chores  and 
cook,  cook,  cook ;  but  physically,  mentally  and  by  training  she 
was  unfit  to  perform  the  greater  world  duties. 

But  the  world  war  has  proved  that  all  the  tasks  which  men 
claimed  women  were  imfitted  to  perform  can  as  well  be  done  by 
what  we  have  been  pleased  to  term  the  "weaker  sex." 

The  war  has  proved  a  truism  that  old  saying,  "The  hand 
that  rocks  the  cradle  rules  the  world,"  and  also  that  the  burden 
of  war  falls  upon  women.  It  is  they  who  give  up  their  sons  to 
their  country  and  send  their  husbands  and  boys  to  the  front  to 
serve  as  fodder  for  the  cannon. 

In  England  the  work  of  women  in  the  war  secured  for 
them  a  degree  of  recognition  in  Parliament  which  all  of  their 
agitation  and  militant  tactics  failed  to  produce. 

National  extremity  was  woman's  opportunity;  frank  in- 
vitation to  new  lines  of  work  was  followed  by  hearty  apprecia- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  men;  and  a  proposition  to  extend  suf- 
frage to  6,000,000  English  women  was  based  avowedly  upon 
the  general  gratitude  felt  for  their  loyal  and  effective  service  in 
the  war.  And  it  is  war  service,  for  modern  warfare  has  greatly 
enlarged  the  content  of  that  term.     In  the  modern  conception 

298 


¥/OMAN  AND  WAE.  299 

those  who  make  munitions  or  in  other  ways  release  others  for 
the  front  are  doing  war  service  as  truly  as  those  who  bear  arms. 

Instead  of  yielding  to  fame  a  few  isolated  MoUie  Pitchers, 
the  war  brought  a  largely  neglected  half  of  the  nation's  mili- 
tary strength  into  practical  service.  Indeed,  though  woman 
dreads  war  more  than  man  does,  if  it  comes  to  actual  defense 
of  land  and  home  and  young,  we  find,  with  Kipling,  that  "the 
female  of  the  species  is  more  deadly  than  the  male." 
THE  WORK  OF  WOMEN. 

The  work  of  the  women  in  the  munitions  factories  in  Eng- 
land has  deservedly  attracted  large  attention,  and,  doubtless, 
British  historians  will  for  centuries  tell  how,  when  England 
found  herself  utterly  at  a  loss  before  her  enemies  because  of  a 
lack  of  effective  ammunition,  the  women  responded  "as  one 
man"  to  meet  the  need  and  save  the  Union  Jack  from  being 
forced  to  the  shore.  It  was  a  repetition,  multiplied  10,000 
times,  of  the  Presbyterian  parson  at  Springfield,  N.  J.,  supply- 
ing Washington's  army  w^ith  Watts  hymn  books  when  it  was 
retreating  to  serve  as  paper  w^adding  for  the  rifles. 

The  innovation  of  the  task,  the  large  scale  on  which  It  was 
carried  out  and  the  striking  success  of  it  make  it  a  major  event 
of  the  war,  even  to  be  compared  with  the  battle  of  the  Mame. 
And  shall  not  American  historians  ascribe  to  the  scores  of 
young  girls  who  lost  their  lives  in  an  explosion  at  Eddystone, 
Pa.,  making  munitions,  the  honor  of  being  the  first  martyrs  of 
the  German- American  War? 

It  was  not  alone  the  working  girls  of  England  who  tired 
their  arms  and  calloused  their  hands  on  the  heavy  shells.  When 
the  work  was  at  its  full  capacity,  a  proposition  was  sent  to  the 
women  of  leisure  to  undergo  three  weeks  of  training  in  a  muni- 
tions factory  and  then  take  up  the  work  at  the  week-ends  to 
relieve  the  regular  workers,  the  women  shell  machinists,  whose 
strength  and  skill  could  best  be  maintained  by  saving  them 
from  Saturday  and  Sunday  overtime. 


300  WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR. 

There  was  a  strange  incongruity  in  paying  them  less  than 
the  men  for  the  same  work.  They  worked  in  eight-hour  shifts 
and  were  required  to  stand,  except  dm^ing  a  single  half -hour 
interval.  The  prospectus  of  instruction  suggested  short  skirts, 
thick  gloves  and  boots  with  low  heels,  adding  that  evening 
dress  would  not  be  necessary. 

Hotel  accommodations  were  attempted  for  these  "lady" 
workers,  but  this  proved  inadequate,  and  part  of  them  went  to 
the  lodgings  with  the  regular  workers.  Short  skirts  were  only 
the  first  step  that  promptly  led  to  overalls,  and  when  these 
English  ladies,  whom  the  girls  called  "Miaows,"  got  well 
grimed  with  dust  and  grease,  utterly  tired  out  with  handling 
12-pound  shells  and  hungry  enough  to  prefer  coarse  food,  they 
understood  the  workgirls  as  never  before,  and  the  men,  too,  and 
they  had  a  new  birth  of  patriotism.  One  lady  said  she  found 
great  relief  and  enthusiasm  by  thinking  of  the  shells  as  so  many 
dead  Boches  or  live  Tommies. 

VARIED  OCCUPATIONS  OF  WOMEN. 

Making  ammunition  and  hospital  supplies,  handling  lug- 
gage and  trunks  in  baggage  rooms,  driving  motors,  conducting 
trolley  cars,  carpentry  work  on  wooden  houses  for  the  front, 
are  but  a  few  of  the  occupations  in  v/hich  European  women 
engaged  in  war  service.  They  have  served  as  lift  attendants, 
ticket  sellers,  post  office  sorters,  mail  carriers,  gardeners,  dairy 
lassies,  grocery  clerks,  drivers  of  delivery  wagons  and  vans, 
commissionaires.  More  than  a  million  were  added  to  the  in- 
dustrial workers  in  England  during  the  first  two  years  of  war, 

America  coming  later  into  the  war,  its  women  naturally 
followed  the  lead  of  the  English  and  French  along  many  lines 
tried  and  proved  to  be  worth  while,  but  our  matrons  and  maids, 
famed  for  their  independence  and  initiative,  developed  also  new 
lines  of  patriotic  effort.  As  soon  as  it  was  evident  that  German 
ambitions  included  designs  upon  America,  the  strong  feminine 
insthict  for  preservation  began  to  assert  itself.     Pacifism  had 


WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR  301 

no  special  appeal  to  the  gentler  sex  at  such  a  time.  She  got 
behind  the  recruiting  as  if  it  were  her  own  job,  and  much  of  the 
success  of  it  was  due  to  her  efforts. 

The  Woman's  Section  of  the  Navy  League  may  well  be 
described  by  quoting  from  its  own  statement  of  motive  and 
purpose.  "Every  mother  with  sons,  every  wife  with  husband, 
every  sister  with  a  brother,  feels  her  heart  stand  still  with  the 
horror  of  what  war  may  bring  to  her." 

WOMAN'S  MANY  SERVICES. 

These  women  spread  information  to  arouse  interest  in  the 
condition  of  the  United  States  naval  forces,  aided  recruiting 
for  the  Naval  Reserve,  assisted  in  procuring  enrollments  for 
the  Naval  Coast  Reserve,  and  drawing  on  their  resources  pro- 
vided many  needed  articles  of  clothing,  equipment  and  comfort 
not  furnished  by  the  Government.  A  knitting  committee 
makes  sleeveless  jackets,  helmets,  wristlets  and  mufflers.  Com- 
fort kits,  games,  blankets,  underwear,  rubber  hats,  coats 
and  boots  are  made  or  bought  by  the  Comfort  and  Supplies 
Committee. 

The  two  poles  of  patriotic  service  are  the  production  of 
food  and  fighting  at  the  front ;  a  world  of  activity  bulges  be- 
tween them.  European  women  are  accustomed  to  farm  labor. 
Millions  of  peasant  women,  serfs,  all  but  in  name,  under  the 
late  Russian  regime;  Balkan  women,  German  and  French 
wives  and  girls,  and,  to  some  extent,  the  mothers  and  daugh- 
ters of  the  English  poor,  would  have  understood  Markham's 
poem  better  if  he  had  called  it,  "The  Woman  With  the  Hoe." 

In  the  war  food  crisis  the  women  of  America  matched  the 
women  of  the  enemy  and  vied  with  those  of  their  own  allies  in 
persuading  mother  earth  to  yield  her  bounty.  In  heavy  shoes, 
trousers  of  jean,  roUed-up  sleeves  and  a  straw  hat,  the  girls  of 
America  here  and  there  turned  to  the  land  and  took  hold  of  the 
tasks  of  the  farm. 

So  far  we  have  mentioned  only  the  work  at  home  that 


302  WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR. 

women  took  up  for  the  war,  but  this  is  only  a  part;  the  other 
pole  finds  them  near.  The  invaluable  service  of  Red  Cross 
nurses,  their  zeal  and  sacrifice  and  sometimes  martyrdom,  from 
Elizabeth  Fry  and  Florence  Nightingale  to  Edith  Cavell,  have 
been  women's  glory  for  more  than  half  a  century.  This  war 
multiplied  the  need  many  times  and  veritable  regiments  of 
them  responded.  Their  emblem  became  the  symbol  universal 
of  mercy,  charity  and  good  will. 

In  addition  to  the  50  trained  nurses  for  a  base  hospital, 
there  are  25  hospital  aids,  who  serve  without  pay.  America 
has  8000  registered  Red  Cross  nurses  and  scores  of  thousands 
are  in  training  for  aids. 

The  effective  and  helpful  work  of  women  in  all  lines  of 
endeavor,  aside  from  home  and  family  life,  has  never  before 
been  shown  so  impressively  as  now.  Their  energy,  willingness, 
faithfulness  and  capabihty  in  every  activity  are  unsurpassed. 

WOMAN  BENT  ON  DOING  HER  UTMOST. 

But  woman  shares  the  lot  of  mankind  on  earth,  and  in  the 
issues  of  life  and  death,  land  and  home,  she  fears  to  do  less  than 
her  most,  and  we  would  fear  to  have  her  do  less. 

The  woman  for  ages  has  been  the  war  nurse,  but  the  Amer- 
ican woman  has  gone  a  step  further  and  quahfied  as  the  war 
physician.  When  the  war  clouds  first  hovered  over  America 
more  than  200  women  physicians  formally  offered  their  serv- 
ices to  the  Government.  At  the  graduation  exercises  of  a 
women's  medical  college,  when  America  first  entered  the  war, 
a  prominent  official  made  the  statement  that  3,000  women 
physicians  could  find  unlimited  work  of  mercy  behind  the  first 
line  of  firing  in  Europe. 

The  surgeon  general  of  the  United  States  army  did  not 
await  an  actual  call  to  arms  to  notify  a  physician  that  the 
proffer  of  the  services  of  women  physicians  would  be  accepted 
when  the  need  came. 


WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR,  303 

"When  I  spoke  to  the  women,"  said  this  physician,  **I 
asked  them  this  question: 

"  *Can  I  tell  the  Government  that  it  may  eomit  upon  each 
and  all  of  you  for  any  work  within  your  power?' 

"Their  answer  was  unanimous.    It  was  'Yes.'  " 

There  is  a  law  prohibiting  women  from  going  aboard  bat- 
tleships when  they  are  under  way,  but  such  an  obstacle  has  not 
stood  in  the  way  of  woman's  desire  to  help  where  she  can  when 
her  country  caUs,  and  so  Miss  Loretta  Walsh  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  United  States  navy— the  first  woman  enlisted  in  that 
branch  of  the  service,  with  the  exception  of  the  nurses'  corps. 
Her  title  was  chief  yeoman. 

Women  announced  their  readiness  to  assist  In  another  way 
— in  economizing — one  organization  having  adopted  the  fol- 
lowing resolutions : 

RESOLUTION  ON  ECONOMICS. 

"Resolved,  That  all  patriotic  women  be  urged  to  use  their 
influence  on  fashions  in  dress  to  keep  them  as  economical  as 
possible,  and  to  register  their  disapproval  of  such  styles  as  the 
melon  and  peg-top  skirt,  or  any  other  styles  that  imply  ex- 
travagant changes  in  the  wardrobe,  to  the  end  that  the  time  and 
money  thus  saved  from  clothes  may  be  devoted  to  the  needs  of 
the  nation." 

How  often  have  we  heard:  "When  war  comes,  when  our 
homes  are  threatened,  when  peril  stalks  abroad  in  the  land, 
who  shoulders  the  musket  and  goes  out  to  fight?  The  man! 
The  man!" 

But  woman,  knowing  better  than  man  the  impulses  of  her 
own  heart,  only  awaited  the  opportunity  to  show  what  she  could 
do,  though,  much  more  than  man,  she  loves  peace,  detests  strife. 
But  she  did  not  await  an  actual  call  to  arms  to  show  the  patri- 
otic spirit  with  which  her  soul  was  fired.  Whatever  her  Gov- 
ernment was  willing  she  should  do,  to  that  was  she  prepared  to 
give  her  best  efforts. 


304  WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR. 

Lady  Frances  Balfour,  president  of  the  London  Society 
of  National  Union  of  Women  Suffragists  and  president  of  the 
Travelers'  Aid  Society,  worked  as  hard  to  win  the  war  as  any 
Tommy  in  the  trenches. 

A  daughter  of  the  eighth  Duke  of  Argyll  and  the  widow 
of  a  soldier,  she  played  an  important  part  in  Scotch  and  Eng- 
lish public  life  for  many  years,  and  has  done  much  to  advance 
the  cause  of  British  women. 

An  authentic  view  of  the  situation  as  it  developed  with 
reference  to  the  reception  of  women  into  the  everyday  work 
and  what  American  women  might  do  is  contained  in  the  follow- 
ing interview  with  Lady  Balfour : 

WOMAN  AS  WAGE  EARNER. 

**We  are  doing  everything,"  she  said.  "We  are  filling 
nearly  every  post.  If  the  House  of  Lords  had  not  vetoed  the 
bill  we  would  be  solicitors,  but  that  must  wait  for  a  time. 
British  women  are  now  meeting  with  success  because  for  the 
first  time  they  are  receiving  a  proper  wage  and  are  able  to  live 
in  a  way  to  do  their  best  work.  The  old  sweat  shop  wage  has 
gone,  and  I  hope  never  to  return.  Women  will  never  return 
to  the  conditions  which  existed  before  the  war. 

"American  women  start  with  a  great  advantage.  They 
have  already  the  entree  in  the  business  world  and  fill  many 
clerical  places,  whereas  our  women  and  girls  had  to  break  down 
the  barriers  of  conservatism  existing  in  a  great  number  of 
banks.  There  was  the  same  objection  to  women  workers  among 
the  farmers  of  the  South  of  England,  though  in  Scotland  the 
woman  has  always  done  her  part  on  the  farm. 

"Girls  are  beginning  on  the  farm  at  18  shillings  ($4.50) 
a  week;  before  the  war  men  farm  hands  worked  for  11  shilHngs 
($2.75) .  Our  women  are  milking  cows,  running  steam  plows. 
digging  in  the  fields  and  giving  complete  satisfaction.  I  dare 
not  venture  to  predict  v/hai  v/ill  happen  in  the  future,  but  we 
can  face  it  with  confidence,  I  am  certain.    Now  we  are  inspired 


From  Underwood  &   Underwood,   X.    Y. 


(cj(_omumice   on   I'ublic   Information. 


THE    GUN    WITH  THE  PUNCH. 
Huge   American    railway   artillery   of    16-inch   calibre   for   the   U.    S.    Army.      This   big 
gun  can  be  put  into  position  in  15  minutes  and  will  fire  all  around  the  horizon.     The  am- 
munition  car  for  shell   and  powder  is  attached. 


American  Press  Association. 


GEOUP  OP  RUSSIAN  SAILORS. 
They  are  the  first  to  come  to  New  York  since  the  United  States  entered  the  war. 


_  ©American  Press  Association. 

SERBIAN  CORPS  ORGANIZED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
n>,«S."aS®^.®*?^  Serhians  organized  an  army  and  went  to  France  and  joined  the  offensive.     The 


WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR.  305 

with  the  spirit  of  patriotism;  we  feel  we  owe  our  best  to  our 
country;  we  are  ready  to  suffer  hardship  just  as  our  brave  men 
are  doing  in  the  trenches. 

BRITISH  WOMEN'S  PATRIOTISM. 

"The  patriotism  of  British  women  had  stood  a  hard  test; 
I  hope  American  women  have  an  easier  trial.  Lloyd  George 
says  he  hopes  America  will  profit  by  the  mistakes  of  Britain. 
For  more  than  a  year  the  government  of  this  country  snubbed 
and  discouraged  our  women.  The  government  does  not  pay 
women  at  the  same  rate  as  men ;  it  does  not  give  them  the  same 
war  bonus.  There  came  a  time  when  the  government  realized 
the  war  could  not  be  won  without  the  women.  Then  it  issued 
frantic  calls  for  help,  and  the  women  responded  nobly,  just  as 
they  would  have  done  months  before.  I  hope  yom-  American 
Government  will  recognize  the  value  of  woman's  help  from  the 
very  start. 

"Unfortunately  I  must  judge  your  women  largely  by 
those  who  come  over  here  for  the  season  in  peace  days.  As  I 
remember  they  spent  a  great  deal  of  time  and  money  at  the 
hairdressers,  manicures,  dressmaking  estabhshments  and  hotels. 
But  I  am  certain  the  great  majority  of  Americans  care  more 
for  their  homes  and  country  and  less  for  display.  I  feel  that 
they  should  concentrate  on  the  production  of  food.  We  need 
all  we  can  get  and  then  we  shall  not  have  as  much  as  we  require. 
Money,  food  and  ships  are  the  things  most  needed. 

"Your  women  have  been  wonderfully  generous  in  giving 
us  money,  supporting  hospitals  and  sending  us  supplies.  We 
can  use  some  of  your  nurses  and  women  doctors.  We  have  a 
hospital  here  in  London  holding  nearly  1000  soldiers  and  it  is 
run  entirely  by  women.  Our  Scottish  women's  hospitals  have 
done  grand  work  in  the  various  theaters  of  war.  Not  only  the 
nurses,  but  the  doctors  and  ambulance  drivers  are  women.  We 
have  supplied  about  72,000  women  for  this  work  alone." 


306  WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR 

"How  have  women  regarded  the  discipline  of  army  life?" 
was  asked. 

"Wonderfully!"  said  Lady  Frances.  "It  has  been  good 
for  them.  Just  see  our  women  'bus  conductors.  They  worlc 
hard,  handle  all  kinds  of  people,  but  I  never  heard  them  say 
they  are  unable  to  meet  the  emergencies  which  arise.  And  f  or 
the  most  part  they  are  women  who  come  from  very  humble 
surroundings.  You  hear  that  women  have  broken  down  in 
health  under  their  work,  but  it  seems  to  me  I  have  read  fre- 
quently about  American  business  men  suffering  from  nervous 
breakdowns  and  overwork." 

SUCCESS  BUILT  ON  RUINS  OF  FAILURE. 
No  great  victories,  either  in  war  or  in  the  ordinary  relations 
of  hfe,  are  attained  without  initial  blunders.  Many  a  splendid 
success  is  built  upon  the  ruins  of  failure,  and  this  is  a  fact  that 
the  women  of  Europe  learned  after  the  first  hysteria  occasioned 
by  the  marchmg  soldiers,  the  beat  of  drums  and  all  the  excite- 
ment incident  to  real  warfare.  American  women,  when  they 
jomed  hands  with  the  Allies  against  Prussianism  and  all  that  it 
meant,  builded  splendid  records  of  their  usefuhiess  upon  the 
mistakes  that  these  women  made. 

In  the  summer  of  1914  every  girl  and  woman  clamored  to 
be  a  nurse.  Women  with  a  great  deal  of  money  and  no  experi- 
ence opened  "hospitals"  that  were  about  as  fit  for  the  reception 
and  treatment  of  wounded  men  as  a  henroost  is  capable  of  hous- 
mg  an  eagle.  They  all  wanted  to  be  in  the  "Red  Cross"  or  "V. 
A.  p."  (Voluntary  Aid  Department)  and  wear  caps  and 
bandage  wounds. 

Then  there  were  the  amateur  nurses  who  didn't  know  much 
about  nursing,  "but  would  love  to  try."  The  daughter  of  a  duke 
tried  to  go  through  a  probationary  course  at  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital  because  she  thought  the  uniform  "perfectly 
sweet."  But  of  course  this  element  of  "fluffiness"  exists  on 
the  outside  of  any  great  movement.   It  has  to  be  blown  away 


WOMAN  AND  THE  WAK.  ,  307 

so  that  the  hard  surface  of  genuine  and  practical  endeavor  can 
be  seen  and  felt.  And  that  is  what  happened  to  England.  The 
''fluff"  disappeared  and  women  knew  where  they  were,  and  men 
realized  that  women  possess  a  force,  a  firm  and  splendid  resolve, 
that  gives  them  the  right  to  step  beside  men  in  the  march  toward 
victory. 

Another  craze  that  amounted  to  a  vice  was  the  furious  and 
ill-considered  efforts  of  totally  unskilled  women  to  make  shirts 
and  hospital  garments  for  soldiers.  If  some  of  the  results  had 
not  been  pathetic  one  could  almost  be  overcome  with  the  comi- 
cahty  of  the  wiiole  business.  Soldiers'  shirts  w^ere  turned  out  by 
a  circle  of  busily  sewing  ladies  that  would  not  fit  a  dwarf,  while 
probably  the  next  batch  of  garments  dispatched  with  patriotic 
fervor  to  a  regimental  depot  might  have  been  designed  for  a 
race  of  giants. 

NATIONAL  SERVICE  FOR  WOMEN. 

National  service  for  women  as  well  as  for  men  proved  a 
very  substantial  portion  of  Great  Britain's  strength,  but  before 
national  service  had  been  generally  thought  of  an  organization 
called  the  Women's  Service  Bureau  had  been  formed  by  a 
group  of  influential  and  intelligent  women  w4io  were  imbued 
with  the  idea  that  only  by  careful  and  systematized  registration 
and  selection  could  the  matter  of  feminine  war  work  be  success- 
fully arranged. 

Lady  Frances  Balfour  was  the  first  president  of  the 
Women's  Service  Bureau,  which  with  the  London  Society  for 
Suffrage  estabhshed  62  branches  in  the  city  of  London  and 
its  suburbs. 

What  the  women  at  the  head  of  this  society  realized  was  the 
necessity  for  giving  the  right  women  the  most  suitable  employ- 
ment and  also  to  give  every  applicant  for  work  helpful  and 
practical  advice.  The  need  for  women's  labor  in  the  many 
trades  and  professions  hitherto  closed  to  them,  and  for  their 
increased  co-operation  in  those  in  which  they  already  took  part, 
has  been  forced  home  even  to  unwilling  minds. 


308  WOMAN  AND  THE  WAE. 

Here  and  there  on  the  battlefields  of  Europe— in  Bulgaria, 
Servia,  Roumania,  France,  Belgium  and  Russia— have  been 
noted  occasionally  the  presence  of  a  woman  warrior,  a  modern 
Joan  of  Arc.  It  was  not  expected,  however,  that  in  America 
woman  would  do  more  than  perform  the  service  work  which  fell 
to  the  lot  of  the  Red  Cross  nurses  and  the  women  practicing 
conservation  and  effecting  organization  in  England. 

But  the  women  of  America  were  not  satisfied  with  "petti- 
coat preparedness."  They  rushed  to  the  khaki  suits  and  to  the 
colors  with  unexpected  enthusiasm.  One  khaki-clad  woman 
walked  from  San  Francisco  to  New  York,  making  recruiting 
speeches  on  the  way. 

The  infantry,  the  cavalry,  the  navy,  the  marines  could 
all  point  to  their  girls  in  khaki. 

ALL,  KINDS  OF  WOMEN  ENLISTED. 
As  the  women  enlisted  for  all  kinds  of  service,  so  it  may 
be  said  all  kinds  of  women  enhsted — that  is,  women  of  all  ranks 
of  Hf e — some  from  society,  some  from  the  mills,  others  from  the 
offices,  the  shops,  the  stage,  the  restaurants  and  the  colleges. 

Many  years  ago  the  country  rang  with  the  name  of  Tippe- 
canoe, and  one  of  the  men  who  bore  arms  on  the  western  frontier 
was  William  Henry  Harrison.  The  years  went  by  and  Ben- 
jamin Harrison  came  to  the  White  House  as  President. 

The  Harrison  blood  showed  in  the  preparedness  work,  and 
Old  Tippecanoe's  great  granddaughter  helped  to  make  the 
women  of  the  country  fit  for  the  burden  of  war. 

There  isn't  anytliing  on  earth  that  shows  so  strongly  in  the 
blood  as  the  soldier  element,  and  Elizabeth  Harrison,  whose 
great  ancestor  faced  the  perils  of  the  frontier  warfare,  was  a 
leader  by  force  of  her  inherited  ability  as  a  leader.  She  was 
elected  drill  sergeant  for  the  college  girls  of  the  New  York 
University. 

When  the  war  clouds  came  she  was  following  inherited 
bent.  All  of  the  Harrison  men  had  been  among  the  country's 


WOMAN  AND  THE  WAK.  309 

greatest  lawyers  and  Miss  Harrison  was  studying  for  the  bar. 

But  just  as  the  warwhoop  of  the  West  called  Tippecanoe 
from  his  books  and  briefs  to  bullets  and  battles,  so  the  daughter 
of  the  former  President  dropped  Blackstone  and  Kent  to  take 
up  the  Drill  Regulations  and  the  elementary  text  books  of  the 
army. 

She  knew  that  the  way  to  make  women  fit  for  their  part  of 
vmi  service  was  to  make  them  strong  and  healthy  and  to  give 
them  an  idea  of  the  things  that  men-at-arms  have  to  do. 

NOTED  WOMEN  IN  THE  WORK. 

So  Miss  Harrison  was  one  of  the  first  workers  in  the  move- 
ment to  teach  women  the  elements  of  war.  Many  women  of 
importance  in  the  social  and  financial  world  took  up  the  task 
with  a  will,  and  there  was  a  girl  for  every  signal  flag,  a  maid  for 
every  wireless  station,  and  an  angel  for  every  hospital  ward  in 
the  making  as  the  men  pursued  the  task  of  providing  guns  and 
the  men  behind  the  guns. 

Miss  Harrison  and  the  girls  she  drilled  at  the  University 
wore  regulation  field  service  uniform,  khaki  breeches,  coat, 
heavy  shoes  and  puttees,  and  a  large  hat  of  military  cut. 

The  American  Woman's  League  for  Self-Defence  and 
Preparedness  was  the  first  woman's  military  organization  in 
America,  according  to  its  president,  Mrs.  Ida  Powell  Priest, 
who  is  descended  from  an  old  Long  Island  family,  Thomas 
Powell  being  one  of  her  ancestors. 

The  first  cavalry  troop,  of  which  Ethel  M.  Scheiss  was  first 
senior  captain,  drilled  regularly.  Their  first  appearance 
mounted  caused  a  mild  sensation  on  Broadway.  They  were 
most  impressively  stern  soldierettes  as  they  trotted  and  galloped 
their  horses. 

Everywhere  the  girl  in  America  strove  with  helpful 
earnestness  to  do  *'her  bit."  Every  strata  of  society  caUed  out 
its  members  in  a  wonderful  plan  of  feminine  preparedness. 
Besides  the  thousands  of  women  members  of  the  Red  Cross 


^10  WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR. 

some  of  the  most  prominent  organizations  ofBcered  and  planned 
by  women  include  The  Natioiial  League  for  Women's  Service, 
which  has  branches  in  every  large  city  in  the  United  States.' 
They  enrolled  women  as  motor  car  drivers,  telegi^aphers,  wire- 
less operators,  agriculturists  and  skilled  mechanics. 

Miss  Anne  Morgan,  as  head  of  this  organization,  devoted 
an  enormous  amount  of  energy  to  the  success  of  the  work. 
OTHER  SOCIETIES  ORGANIZED. 

Other  societies  organized  were  the  National  Special  Aid 
Society,  Service  of  Any  Kind,  Militia  of  Mercy,  which  sends 
and  provides  bandages  and  other  necessities  and  comforts  for 
the  soldiers;  Girl  Scouts  of  America,  first  aid,  signalling  and 
drills;  Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution;  the  Suffrage 
Party  and  the  Anti-Suffrage  Society;  the  International  Child 
Welfare  League  and  the  Girls'  National  Honor  Guard.  The 
Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  all  over  the  United  States  also 
organized  for  any  patriotic  service  that  women  could  perform. 

A  practical  way  of  doing  something  to  help  France  and 
Servia  was  offered  early  in  the  war  by  the  splendid  initiative 
of  Dr.  Elsie  Inglis  and  the  Scottish  Federation  of  Women's 
Suffrage  Societies,  who  organized  hospitals  for  the  wounded, 
the  staffs  of  which  were  all  women,  and  called  on  other  societies 
for  their  support. 

.  T^^  London  society  responded  first  by  subscriptions  from 
individual  members,  then  by  giving  beds,  then  (in  February, 
1915)  by  offering  itself  as  London  agent  for  the  hospitals  and 
undertaking  all  the  practical  work,  in  the  sending  out  of  per- 
sonnel and  equipment,  which  had  to  be  transacted  in  London. 

It  is  only  by  carefully  systematized  organization  that  great 
work  of  this  kind  can  be  carried  on.  The  slapdash,  haphazard 
of  hysterical  excitement  can  have  no  legitimate  place  in  a  move- 
ment that  provides  stepping  stones  toward  the  salvation  of  the 
civilized  world. 

One  of  the  things  which  will  live  long  in  the  history  of 


WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR.  311 

womankind  was  the  wonderful  work  done  by  the  magnificently 
courageous  units  of  Lady  Paget's  nursing  force,  which  went 
out  to  Servia,  when  that  country  was  laid  waste  not  only  by  the 
German  beasts,  but  also  by  disease. 

It  was  not  the  fault  of  those  brave  women  and  men  that 
things  happened  at  Uskub  and  in  other  Servian  towns  that  do 
not  bear  repeating. 

It  was  just  the  lack  of  thorough  preparedness  for  a  war 
which  was  much  worse  than  humanity  had  thought  possible  that 
deepened  the  tragedy  of  their  situation.  In  Servia,  in  fact,  the 
career  of  the  hospitals  was  quite  checkered  and  the  service 
rendered  proportionately  more  vital. 

LONDON-WALES  UNIT. 

At  the  time  of  the  Austro-German  invasion  in  the  autumn 
of  1915,  the  London-Wales  Unit  was  at  Valjevo,  one  of  the 
five  Scottish  women's  hospitals  working  in  the  country.  It  was 
under  the  command  of  Dr.  Alice  Hutchinson  and  was  very 
highly  organized.  Doctor  Inghs  had  herself  gone  on  to  Servia 
to  take  general  charge  of  the  hospitals  there  in  the  spring  of 
1915.  From  the  time  that  a  typhus  epidemic  was  overcome  by 
women  doctors  early  in  the  year  to  the  time  of  the  invasion  all 
seemed  to  be  going  well.  Then  came  three  weeks  of  great  pres- 
sure of  work  and  of  rapid  moves  from  place  to  place  as  the 
enemy  advanced  into  the  country.  Finally,  it  became  a  necessity 
for  the  personnel  of  the  different  units  either  to  retreat  with  the 
Servian  army  over  the  mountains  into  Montenegro  or  to  fall 
in  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

The  story  of  the  retreat  is  now  very  generally  known.  The 
journey  was  one  long  series  of  forced  marches.  Mountains  7000 
feet  high  had  to  be  traversed  in  blinding  snow,  almost  the  whole 
journey  had  to  be  made  on  foot  and  it  was  six  weeks  before  the 
little  band  reached  the  coast.  Doctor  Inglis  meanwhile,  with 
her  group  of  nurses  and  orderlies,  and  Doctor  Hutchinson,  with 
the  London- Wales  Unit,  had  gallantly  stayed  behind  and  con- 


312  WOMAJST  AND  THE  WAE. 

tinued  to  attend  to  their  Servian  wounded  and  to  organize  help 
for  them  tiU  the  work  was  forcibly  stopped  bv  the  advancing 
Austrian  army. 

UNIT  TAKEN  PRISONERS. 

After  being  ordered  out  of  Valjevo,  Doctor  Hutchinson 
made  several  attempts  to  organize  hospitals  in  the  line  of 
retreat.      She  was  at  Vrnyachka  Banja  when  the  Austrians 
entered  the  town  on  November  10,  1915.      She  and  her  unit 
were  taken  prisoners  and  interned,  first  near  the  Servian  fron- 
tier and  then  in  Hungary  for  three  weary  months.     The  cheer- 
ful courage  with  which  the  members  of  the  unit  bore  hardship 
and  uncertainty  and  hope  deferred  has  been  related  by  Doctor 
Hutchinson  in  a  memorable  narrative.    Their  conditions  would 
have  been  still  more  intolerable  and  their  release  would  have 
been  still  longer  delayed  if  Doctor  Hutchinson  herself  had  not 
known  a  great  deal  more  about  the  Geneva  Convention  than 
the  Austrian  authorities  had  ever  dreamed.     She  was  tlms  able 
to  assert  herself  on  behalf  of  those  under  her  in  a  way  which 
taught  her  captors  something  new  about  British  women.     At 
the  beginning  of  Febmary  the  unit  was  at  last  allowed  to  cross 
the  frontier  into  Switzerland.     It  reached  England  on  Feb- 
ruary 12.     It  was  only  the  perfection  of  its  organization  that 
carried  this  brave  body  of  women  through  amazing  hardships. 
Abroad  women  chauffeurs  became  almost  as  coramon  in 
the  war  as  men;  the  public  in  Paris  and  London  refused  to 
regard  the  appearance  of  a  woman  on  the  streets  in  cap, 
"knickers"  and  puttees  or  heavy  boots  as  unusual,  and  in  need 
they  in  many  instances  not  only  drove  "taxi,"  but  guided  ambu- 
lances in  the  hospital  servaoe. 

The  Bed  Cross  in  America,  in  the  matter  of  preparedness, 
organized  a  class  for  women  chauffeurs.  One  of  these,  started 
in  Philadelphia,  had  among  its  instructors  I\Irs.  Thomas  Lang- 
don  Elwyn  and  Miss  Letitia  McKim,  both  of  whom  drove 
ambulances  for  the  AlHes  in  England. 


WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR.  313 

The  National  League  for  Woman  Service,  working  in 
conjuction  with  the  Council  of  National  Defense,  canvassed  the 
country  through  its  Bureau  of  Registration  and  Informa- 
tion to  provide  statistics  for  mobilizing  the  entire  woman-force 
of  the  Nation;  all  of  which  was  done  with  the  approval  of  the 
Secretary  of  Labor. 

Perhaps  the  outstanding  incident  of  industrial  employ- 
ment among  women  was  that  of  several  women  in  France  as 
locomotive  engineers.  It  is  true  that  they  operated  only  the 
shunting  engines  about  the  yards  at  the  military  camps,  but 
it  was  noted  in  dispatches  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe  that 
Mesdames  Louis  Debris  and  Marie  Viard,  whose  husbands 
were  killed  in  the  war,  were  piloting  the  engines  which  their 
husbands  had  formerly  driven. 

WOMAN'S  INGENUITY. 

And  woman  has  proved  her  ingenuity.  In  the  damp 
trenches  of  the  battlefields  abroad  the  men  need  protection 
from  the  dampness  and  cold,  which  ordinary  clothing  mil  not 
provide.  It  was  found  that  the  leather-lined  huntsmen's  coats, 
and  the  sort  of  garments  worn  by  the  chauffeur,  the  aviator 
and  the  mountaineer  served  the  men  in  the  trenches  well,  and 
particularly  along  the  Russian  frontier  and  in  the  cold  moun- 
tainous regions. 

But  the  price  of  leather  soared,  with  the  demand  for  mil- 
lions of  pairs  of  shoes,  saddles,  harness,  headgear,  and  what- 
not, and' leather-lined  coats  were  at  a  premium.  The  women 
were  not  to  be  denied,  and  through  the  Suffrage  organizations 
which  turned  in  to  prepare  America  for  the  struggle  and  to 
render  assistance  to  the  Allies,  the  unique  plan  was  adopted 
of  making  linings  for  the  airmen  and  soldier's  coats  of  old  kid 

gloves.  J  1  1  • 

One  group  of  women  in  a  single  section  of  Philadelphia 
gathered  a  thousand  pairs  of  old  gloves  in  a  canvass.  The 
seams  were  ripped  and  the  gloves  cut  down  one  side  and  laid 


314  WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR. 

open.  The  fingers  of  one  glove  so  treated  were  dovetailed 
between  the  fingers  of  another  glove  so  cut,  and  stitched 
together.  Thus  one  glove  was  sewed  to  another  until  a  section 
of  leather  was  formed  sufficient  to  make  a  lining  for  a  coat. 
And  many  such  were  devised  and  incorporated  in  the  garments 
sent  to  the  front  by  the  various  agencies  dominated  by  the 
women  of  the  land. 

WOMEN  AS  POLICEMEN. 

While  women  to  a  limited  degree  were  rendering  service 
as  "policemen"  in  certain  sections  of  the  United  States  and  on 
Continental  Europe  the  war  was  responsible  for  the  develop- 
ment of  an  organized  force  in  London,  which  will  probably 
remain  a  permanent  organization  to  the  end  of  time.  Miss 
Damer  Dawson  is  chief  of  the  London  woman  "bobbies,"  and 
M.  S.  Allen  is  chief  superintendent. 

The  force  was  organized  in  1914.,  shortly  after  the  out- 
break of  the  war  and  has  relieved  the  men  of  a  large  amount 
of  responsibility.  The  force  is  uniformed,  the  women  wearing 
mihtary  costumes  with  visored  caps.  They  operate  under  the 
supervision,  or  with  the  authority  of  Sir  Edward  Henry,  Chief 
Commissioner  of  the  MetropoUtan  police,  and  serve  for  duty 
at  the  munition  plants  where  women  workers  are  employed, 
besides  doing  regular  patrol  duty  and  welfare  work. 

The  service  in  London  is  in  the  nature  of  a  training  for 
special  service  and  the  women  after  sufficient  experience  are 
sent  to  suburbs  and  small  towns  to  do  police  duty.  They  are 
highly  spoken  of  and  declared  to  be  very  efficient,  rendering 
service  in  the  barrooms  and  looking  after  women  in  a  manner 
that  the  regular  "bobbies"  cannot  approximate. 

It  was  declared  in  England,  by  way  of  closing  the  com- 
ment on  this  phase  of  the  war  that  no  one  thing  so  stimulated 
the  enlistments  for  service  as  the  execution  of  Miss  Edith 
Cavell,  the  English  nurse  who  was  shot  as  a  spy  by  Germany. 


WOMAN  AND  THE  WAR.  315 

That  her  name  will  go  down  in  history  as  a  martyr  to  the  cause 
of  hberty  and  hmnanity  goes  without  saying. 

Miss  Cavell  had  been  a  nurse  in  Brussels,  and  after  the 
occupation  of  the  Belgian  capital  by  the  Germans,  she  remained 
where  she  used  her  private  hospital  for  the  nursing  of  wounded 
soldiers;  not  excluding  the  Germans.  It  had  been  intimated 
that  she  had  better  cross  the  border,  but  she  insisted  on  remain- 
ing at  her  post.  Ultimately  she  was  accused  of  being  one  of 
the  instigators  of  a  plot  to  smuggle  Enghsh,  French  and 
Belgian  soldiers  across  the  lines,  and  of  serving  the  enemies  of 
Germany. 

To  the  German  mind  she  was  more  than  a  spy;  her  con- 
duct was  reprehensible,  because  in  the  capacity  of  nurse  she 
had  won  a  degree  of  confidence.  She  was  therefore  held  as  a 
spy  and  traitor.  And  though  Brand  Whitlock,  America's 
Minister  to  Belgium,  and  other  diplomats  sought  to  save  her, 
she  was  shot  by  the  ruthless  Germans. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  TEERIBLE  PRICE. 

A  Nation  of  Men  Desteoyei>— Millions  in  Shipping  and  Commeece  Desteoyed- 
WoELD's  Maps  Changei>— Billions  in  Money— Immense  Debts— Nation's 
Wealth— The  United  States  a  Geeai  Pkovidek 

THE  human  tongue  seems  almost  devoid  of  power  to  con- 
vey to  the  human  mind  what  the  war  has  actually  cost 
the  world  in  hves,  money,  property,  ideals  and  all  that 
is  dear  to  humanity.  In  all  the  world  there  is  not  a  hunmn 
being  who  has  not  contributed  something  to  the  awful  cost 
and  the  loss  due  to  the  destruction  of  property,  the  stopping 
of  industry,  the  waste  of  energy  and  the  curtailment  of  human 
endeavor  in  the  interest  of  civilization,  and  the  effects  which 
the  struggle  has  had  upon  the  world  cannot  even  be  approxi- 
mated in  dollars  and  cents. 

We  have  been  taught  to  regard  war  as  a  terrible  thing 
and  to  realize  that  thousands  must  be  slain,  but  in  no  war  in 
the  history  of  the  world  has  there  been  as  many  troops  engaged 
as  have  been  killed  in  the  European  war  on  the  battlefields  of 
Belgium  and  France. 

At  the  t)eginning  of  the  year  1917  it  was  estimated  that 
the  total  casualties  of  the  war  were  22,500,000.  In  a  report 
based  on  figures  compiled  in  Washington  it  was  stated:  The 
human  estimated  waste  and  financial  outlay  are  staggering. 
The  combined  casualties  of  the  war,  partly  estimated  because 
all  belligerents  do  not  pubhsh  lists,  are  22,500,000.  The  figures 
included  killed,  permanently  injured,  prisoners  and  wounded 
returned  to  the  front.  Of  this  number  the  Central  Powers 
were  estimated  to  have  suffered  permanent  losses  in  excess  of 
4,000,000,  and  the  entente  perhaps  twice  that  number,  Russia 
being  by  far  the  heaviest  loser. 

The  financial  outlaj^  based  in  part  on  official  reports  and 

316 


THE  TERRIBLE  PRICE.  317 

statements  and  in  part  on  estimates,  was  placed  at  approxi- 
mately $80,000,000,000,  divided  $50,000,000,000  to  the  entente 
and  $30,000,000,000  to  the  Central  Powers.  The  entente  lost 
more  than  3,500,000  tons  of  merchant  shipping  and  approxi- 
mately 800,000  tons  of  naval  vessels.  On  the  other  side  the 
loss  of  naval  tonnage  was  approximately  250,000  tons,  and 
merchant  ships  aggregating  211,000  tons  were  reported  cap- 
tured or  destroyed. 

IMMENSE  LOSS  TO  COMMERCE. 

Of  the  foreign  commerce  the  Central  Powers  had  lost 
$10,000,000,000  in  the  two  and  a  half  years  of  war,  including 
imports  and  exports.  The  loss  of  commerce  of  Great  Britain 
and  her  allies  with  the  Central  Powers  probably  was  in  the 
neighborhood  of  $7,000,000.  This  was  largely  made  up  at 
least  on  the  import  side  by  increased  trade  with  the  United 
States  and  other  neutral  countries  and  enlarged  trade  with  the 
colonies. 

Germany  lost  virtually  all  her  African  colonies  and  all 
her  possessions  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  an  aggregate  of  more 
than  1,000,000  square  miles.  Turkey  also  lost  a  large  area  of 
territory  held  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  while  Austria  lost 
most  of  Bukowina  and  Galicia.  To  offset  the  territory  losses 
of  the  Central  Powers,  the  entente  have  lost  in  Europe  approxi- 
mately 300,000  square  miles.  Of  this  large  area,  all  of  it 
thickly  populated  in  normal  times,  175,000  square  miles  were 
wrested  from  Russia  on  the  eastern  battlefield. 

The  staggering  losses  in  men  include  the  vast  number  on 
both  sides  wounded  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  permanently  cripple 
them  and  render  them  unfit  for  military  service.  The  figures 
are  based  on  official  reports  and  estimates  by  military  experts. 

Germany's  permanent  losses  were  placed  at  1,500,000 
men,  including  about  1,000,000  in  killed.  The  permanent 
losses  of  Austria-Hungary  were  placed  at  about  1,000,000 
more  than  those  of  Germany,  owing  to  the  fact  that  so  much 


318  THE  TERRIBLE  PRICE. 

of  the  hard  fighting  on  the  eastern  front  was  in  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  theater.  The  losses  of  the  Austro-Hungarians 
during  the  drive  of  General  Brusiloff  in  1916  were  frightful. 
Large  numbers  of  Austrians  were  taken  prisoner  by  Brusiloff. 
Russia's  casualties  for  the  first  year  of  the  war  were  esti- 
mated by  military  experts  at  more  than  3,500,000  men,  and 
these  were  doubled  in  the  succeeding  year,  according  to  esti- 
mates by  American  military  experts.  Russia  returned  to  the 
fighting  line  a  smaller  percentage  of  wounded  than  any  of  the 
other  great  Powers. 

GREAT  BRITAIN'S  CASUALTIES. 

Great  Britain's  casualties  were  placed  in  excess  of  1,250,- 
000  despite  the  limited  front  of  British  operations  in  France 
ill  the  early  stages.  The  aggregate  of  Italy's  casualties  was 
estimated  at  1,500,000,  while  Belgium's  were  placed  at  200,000, 
Servia's  at  400,000,  Montenegro's  at  150,000  and  Rumania's 
at  more  than  300,000. 

While  the  area  of  the  territorial  losses  of  the  Central 
Powers  was  nearly  four  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  entente 
group,  with  the  exception  of  the  occupied  portions  of  Buko- 
wina  and  Galicia,  the  value  of  the  territory  included  in  them 
is  comparatively  small.  For  example,  Germany's  African 
colonies  were  sparsely  settled,  largely  by  natives,  with  virtually 
all  development  in  the  future.  Despite  this  fact,  their  loss 
was  a  severe  blow  to  Germany. 

The  territorial  losses  of  the  entente  covered  all  but  a  small 
corner  of  Belgium,  a  highly  developed,  thickly  populated 
industrial  country;  a  large  slice  of  northern  France,  virtually 
all  of  Servia,  all  of  Montenegro,  more  than  three-fourths  of 
Rumania  and  175,000  square  miles  of  Russia,  the  major  part 
of  it  in  the  grain-growing  section. 

According  to  military  experts  on  the  "war  map"  of 
Europe  as  it  stood  at  that  time,  the  Central  Powers  had  won  the 
war.    But  when  their  enormous  loss  of  foreign  commerce  and 


THE  TERRIBLE  PRICE.  319 

territory  is  considered,  their  "vietorjr"  was  shown  to  have  most 
decided  limitations,  especially  because  of  their  admission  that 
they  eventually  would  have  to  give  up  all  occupied  territory  in 
view  of  the  frightful  cost  in  men  and  money. 

FIGURES  POSITIVELY  STAGGERING. 

Supplementing  these  statements,  as  showing  the  progress 
of  the  war,  it  was  stated  just  before  the  United  States  took 
its  memorable  step  to  break  off  diplomatic  relations  with 
Germany,  members  of  the  National  War  Council  estimated  the 
total  casualties  of  the  war  at  that  time  as  in  excess  of  the 
population  of  the  United  Kingdom,  which  in  1911  was  more 
than  45,000,000.  This  of  course  included  those  maimed, 
injured  or  so  stricken  that  they  were  unfit  for  future  service. 
The  number  actually  killed  was  estimated  at  more  than 
7,000,000. 

Staggering  as  these  figures  are  they  are  easily  conceivable 
when  it  is  remembered  that  the  German  front  lines  covered 
more  than  500  miles  with  Allied  troops  opposing  them,  and 
that  in  a  single  battle  millions  of  shells  were  fired  by  one  side 
or  the  other.  In  one  battle  it  was  officially  reported  that 
4,000,000  shot  and  shell  were  used,  and  in  another  the  English 
mined  the  German  trenches  for  a  distance  of  several  miles  and 
blew  out  the  strongholds,  using  more  than  1,000,000  pounds 
of  high  explosives. 

One  of  the  great  42-centimeter  guns  of  the  Germans  is 
said  to  have  used  a  charge  of  guncotton  involving  the  use  of 
a  full  bale  of  cotton  to  make  the  explosive — and  a  bale  of 
cotton  contains  500  pounds.  The  shrapnel  of  the  heavy  field 
artillery  of  the  United  States  contains  717  balls  or  bullets  about 
the  size  of  a  common  marble,  and  the  shell,  so  timed  that  it 
explodes  just  before  it  touches  the  ground,  scatters  the  bullets 
or  balls  over  an  area  estimfated  at  one  yard  for  every  bullet,  or 
more  than  700  yards.     With  thousands  of  such  shells  being 


32U  THE  TEERIBLE  PRICE. 

rained  over  the  entrenchments  is  it  any  wonder  that  the  list  of 
wounded  and  killed  was  great? 

Thousands  were  killed  by  poisoned  gases,  and  where  they 
were  not  killed  a  very  large  percentage  of  those  affected 
suffered  consequences  which  rendered  them  unfit  for  battle — 
turned  them  into  invalids.  The  gas  bombs  produced  hemor- 
rhages of  the  lungs  and  bowels  in  thousands  of  cases  and  left 
those  who  inhaled  the  fumes  in  an  anemic  and  permanently 
disabled  condition.  And  what  of  the  thousands  who  suc- 
cumbed to  fevers,  and  who  because  of  the  terrible  shock  became 
mental  and  physical  wrecks  and  were  made  unfit  for  further 
duty  on  the  actual  firing  lines  ? 

A  MATTER  OF  DOLLARS  AND  CENTS. 

When  it  comes  to  the  cost  in  dollars  and  cents  it  is  possible 
to  tell  something  of  what  they  mean  with  reference  to  war 
construction  and  mamtenance,  although  no  one  can  estimate 
what  it  represents  in  destruction.  No  one  has  yet  devised  an 
accoimting  system  to  determine  the  percentage  of  "deprecia- 
tion" through  wear  and  tear  on  guns  and  devices  that  cost 
thousands  of  dollars  each,  but  everybody  knows  that  guns  wear 
out  and  that  some  of  the  larger  ones  have  a  very  decided  limit 
on  the  number  of  times  they  can  be  fired  without  being  rebored 
or  rifled. 

Railroads  which  have  taken  years  to  build  and  develop 
have  been  destroyed,  telephone  and  telegraph  lines  put  out  of 
commission,  great  castles  and  temples  razed,  works  of  art 
burned,  whole  cities  devastated,  green  fields  tm^ned  into  great 
craters  torn  up  by  bombs  and  shells,  factories  dismantled,  herds 
of  cattle  fed  into  the  maw  of  the  armies,  and  the  ruthless 
Germans  even  went  so  far  as  to  wantonly  cut  down  and  destroy 
whole  forests  and  miagnificent  shade  trees  which  it  took  genera- 
tions to  grow. 

How  the  indebtedness  of  tlie  nations  grew  during  the 
progress  of  the  war  is  shown  in  the  follov/ing  statement  issued 


THE  TERRIBLE  PRICE.  321 

by  some  of  the  financial  institutions  of  the  country  in  the 
Spring  of  1917: 

*' Indebtedness  of  the  seven  principal  nations  engaged  in 
the  European  war  has  crossed  $75,000,000,000.  In  the  middle 
of  1914?  the  indebtedness  of  these  seven  nations  was  $27,000,- 
000,000." 

Financing  on  an  extensive  scale  followed  this  state  of 
affairs.  France  issued  a  second  formal  war  loan,  Germany  a 
fifth  loan  and  Russia  a  sixth  loan.  Great  Britain  issued  tem- 
porary securities  in  enormous  sums. 

The  war  cost  $105,000,000  every  twenty-four  hours,  ac- 
cording to  the  statistics,  expenditures  of  the  Entente  Allies 
being  fully  double  those  of  the  Central  Allies. 

COMPARATIVE  WAR  EXPENSES. 

Without  for  one  moment  taking  into  consideration  the 
billions  which  were  thrown  into  the  war-pot  by  America  the 
figures  are  staggering.  An  interesting  comparison  is  found 
in  the  cost  of  the  previous  great  world  wars.  The  American 
Civil  War,  the  greatest  conflict  in  prior  history  cost  $8,000,- 
000,000,  a  sum  equalled  every  three  months  in  the  conduct  of 
the  European  war. 

Approximate  cost. 

Napoleonic  Wars,  1793-1815 $6,250,000,000 

American  Civil  War,  1861-1864 8,000,000,000 

Franco-Prussian  War,  1870-1871 3,000,000,000 

South  African  War,  1900-1902 1,250,000,000 

Russo-Japanese  War,  1904-1905 2,500,000,000 

European  War,  1914-1917  (3  years) 75,000,000,000 

It  was  further  estimated  that  after  the  year  1917,  the 
payment  of  $3,800,000,000  a  year  would  be  required  to  pay  the 
interest  on  the  debt,  and  that  the  total  Government  expendi- 
tures in  Europe  for  bond  interest  and  support  of  the  various 
branches  of  the  Governments  would  require  in  the  neighbor* 
hood  of  20  per  cent  of  the  people's  income. 


322  THE  TEEEIBLE  PRICE. 

POPULATION  AND  WEALTH  OF  COUNTRIES. 
Another  comparative  table  that  is  important  to  any;  one 
desiring  to  study  the  costs  and  their  effects  is  that  relating  to 
population  and  wealth  of  the  principal  countries.     The  latest 
available  figures  are: 

Population  Wealth 

United  States 101,577,000  $187,739,071,090 

British  Empire .  394,930,000  130,000,000,000 

Germany   67,810,000  80,000,000,000 

France   39,700,000  50,000,000,000 

Russia    187,379,000  40,000,000,000 

Austria-Hungary 53,000,000  25,000,000,000 

Spain   20,000,000  5,400,000,000 

Belgium 7,500,000  9,000,000,000 

Portugal    5,958,000  2,500,000,000 

Italy     37,048,000  20,000,000,000 

Taxes  have  been  the  main  sources  for  raising  money  to 
carry  on  the  war.  In  Germany  taxes  on  all  incomes  from  the 
Kaiser  to  the  ordinary  business  man  were  kept  at  the  highest 
rate,  the  Kaiser  paying  $500,000  on  his  fortune  of  $35,000,000 
during  the  early  part  of  the  struggle.  This  was  in  addition 
to  his  income  tax  which  amounted  to  $440,000^  making  a  total 
annual  tax  of  nearly  $1,000,00Q,  The  Krupps  are  said  to  have 
been  assessed  at  $3,000,000. 

When  the  new  military  service  laws  were  approved  in 
Paris,  which  was  about  the  middle  of  July,  1913,  the  French 
Cabinet  was  at  its  wit's  end  to  provide  the  financial  end  of  the 
tremendous  military  budget.  Investment  markets  were  slug- 
gish, and  there  were  thousands  of  notes  whose  values  were 
rapidly  depreciating.  The  French  Government  was  unable 
to  float  a  loan  of  $200,000,000  which  was  necessary  for  making 
preparations. 

Then  in  her  desperation  Paris  closed  her  doors  to  all 


THE  TERRIBLE  PRICE.  323 

foreign  loans.  The  Viviani  Ministry  praeticaUy  duplicated 
the  plan  of  its  predecessor  in  proposing  an  issue  of  $360,000,000 
3%  per  cent  bonds,  which  were  redeemable  in  25  years. 

One  year  previously  to  this  financial  struggle  the  Belgian 
Government  had  started  to  raise  $62,800,000  in  order  that  the 
people  of  this  country  might  prevent  its  being  used  as  the 
battleground  for  the  world  war  which  they  had  seen  away  off 
in  the  future.  This  money  was  raised  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing Antwerp  an  impregnable  fortress. 

IMMENSE  SUM  FOR  ARMY  AND  NAVY. 
Russia  had  taken  steps  to  raise  $3,700,000,000  which  the 
Russian  Minister  of  Finance  had  informed  the  Budget  Com- 
mittee must  be  spent  in  the  next  five  years  on  the  army  and 
navy.  During  the  first  year  of  the  war  there  was  $500,000,000 
spent  by  this  country  in  military  and  naval  defence.  This  does 
not  include  the  cost  of  those  strategic  raih-oads  of  which  so 
many  were  constructed  by  the  Russian  Government,  and 
which  cost  so  many  hundreds  of  thousands  of  doUars. 

Previous  to  the  time  Great  Britain  declared  war  on  Ger- 
many the  House  of  Commons  had  voted  $525,000,000  for 
emergency  purposes,  and  within  a  couple  of  days  of  this  appro- 
priation an  additional  $500,000,000  was  granted  by  the  British 
Parhament. 

One  of  the  things  accomplished  by  war  was  to  bring  out 
the  fact  that  the  resources  of  individuals  are  far  greater  than 
is  ordinarily  suspected.  In  1870  Bismarck  imposed  an  indem- 
nity of  $1,000,000,000  on  France,  never  believing  that  country 
could  meet  the  great  debt,  but  with  the  help  of  aU  the  inhabi- 
tants the  debt  was  hfted  within  a  few  months. 

When  countries  are  at  war  the  cost  of  continuing  fighting 
does  not  stop  with  those  actually  engaged.  The  trade  of  the 
world  is  affected,  and  this  means  loss  in  all  quarters  of  the 
globe.  Of  the  import  trade  of  the  United  States  more  than 
$500,000,000  was  directly  with  those  nations  engaged  in  the 


324  THE  TERRIBLE  PRICE. 

war  at  the  opening  of  hostilities.  This  was  out  of  a  total  of 
$1,850,000,000.  A  great  part  of  this  commerce  is  classed  as 
among  that  which  yields  the  greatest  import  tax,  which  means 
that  internal  taxes  must  be  imposed  on  the  people  to  make  up 
for  the  money  necessary  to  meet  with  the  yearly  loss  occasioned 
during  the  continuance  of  the  war. 

ANNUAL  NATIONAL  INCOME. 

In  the  United  States  there  is  an  annual  national  income 
of  $50,000,000,000,  the  total  bank  resources  being  $35,000,- 
000,000,  the  individual  deposits  being  $24,000,000,000,  with 
cash  held  by  the  banks  totaling  $2,500,000,000,  total  gold  stock 
in  the  country  being  $3,000,000,000,  and  available  additional 
commercial  credits  on  the  basis  of  cash  holdings  totaling 
$6,000,000,000. 

The  borrowing  power  of  the  American  Government  does 
not  total  less  than  $40,000,000,000,  from  domestic  sources,  and 
this  does  not  disturb  the  ordinary  financial  and  economical 
affairs  of  the  nation. 

During  the  first  five  months  in  1917  the  Government  of 
the  United  States  reached  a  record  for  expenditures  never 
before  equalled  in  American  history.  The  total  amount 
expended  was  $1,600,000,000. 

The  chief  item  of  the  increase— $607,500,000— was  the 
purchase  of  the  obligations  of  foreign  Governments  in  exchange 
for  loans  advanced  to  the  Allies.  The  sum  did  not  represent  by 
approximately  $140,000,000  the  total  amount  authorized  in 
loans.  An  increase  of  approximately  $245,000,000  in  the 
ordinary  disbursements  of  the  Government,  chiefly  due  to 
mihtaiy  and  naval  needs,  also  was  recorded  and  another  item 
going  to  swell  the  gi^and  total  of  expenditures  was  the  payment 
of  $25,000,000  for  purchase  of  the  Danish  West  Indies. 

War  loans  of  the  six  cliief  European  belligerents,  early  in 
1917,  aggregated  approximately  $53,113,000,000. 

Loans  of  the  chief  Entente  nations.  Great  Britain,  France, 


THE  TEREIBLE  PEICE.  325 

Russia  and  Italy,  were  placed  at  about  $36,300,000,000;  those 
of  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary,  not  including  the  sixth 
German  loan  reported  to  have  yielded  about  $3,000,000,000,  at 
$18,800,000,000. 

The  amounts  of  the  various  loans  were  placed  at: 
Great  Britain,  to  March  31,  1917,  $18,805,000,000; 
France,  to  February  28,  $10,500,000,000 ;  Russia,  to  December 
81, 1916,  $7,896,000,000;  Italy,  to  December  31, 1916,  $2,520,- 
000,000;  Germany,  to  December,  31,  1916,  $11,226,000,000; 
Austria,  to  December  31,  1916,  $5,880,000,000;  Hungary, 
$1,730,000,000. 

The  total  included  the  advances  made  by  the  United  King- 
dom and  France  to  the  smaller  belligerent  countries  allied  with 
them. 

SOME  IDEA  OF  NATIONAL  FINANCING. 

Some  idea  of  what  all  this  financing  means  to  a  country 
may  be  judged  by  the  statement  of  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  who  in  October,  1916,  replying  to  questions 
regarding  the  English  loans  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
declared  that  England  was  paying  at  that  time  about  $10,000,- 
000  a  day  in  the  United  States,  for  every  working  day  in  the 
year. 

When  the  English  mission  visited  the  United  States  in 
May,  1917,  after  the  country  had  entered  the  war,  there  was 
handed  to  Arthur  James  Balfour,  ex-Premier  of  England,  a 
check  for  $200,000,000,  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  largest 
single  checks  ever  paid  in  this  country.  It  was  a  loan  for  war 
purposes.  In  the  month  of  June  it  was  stated  that  the  total 
advance  made  to  the  Allies  was  $923,000,000,  among  the  loans 
made  then  was  one  of  $75,000,000  to  Great  Britain,  and  $3,000,- 
000  to  Servia.  The  Servian  loan,  the  first  made  by  the  United 
States  to  that  country,  was  mainly  for  the  improvement  of  rail- 
way lines.  A  small  portion  was  used  for  the  relief  of  the 
distressed  population,  and  Red  Cross  work. 


'32CP  THE  TERKIBLE  PRICE. 

It  was  stated  that  the  allied  countries  would  spend  in 
America,  in  the  neighborhood  of  $200,000,000  a  month  for 
the  year;  which  brings  attention  to  the  resources  which  America 
turned  in  against  Germany  when  she  joined  the  allied  forces. 
To  meet  the  demands  made  upon  it  the  Government  borrowed 
at  once  $3,000,000,000  by  popular  subscription — sl  matter  of 
history  of  which  the  nation  is  proud. 

From  its  funds  the  country  loaned  Russia  $100,000,000, 
which  was  the  first  loan  made  by  the  United  States  to  that 
Government.  A  credit  of  $45,000,000  to  Belgium  was  also 
established  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  This  also  was 
Belgium's  first  participation  in  the  loan  of  the  Allies. 
COUNTRY'S  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 

Aside  from  the  financial  resources  of  the  United  States, 
the  country  is  undoubtedly  the  richest  in  agricultural,  mineral 
and  other  natural  resources.  It  annually  produces  more  than 
3,500,000,000  bushels  of  corn,  wheat  touching  the  high  point  of 
1,500,000,000  bushels;  1,600,000,000  bushels  of  oats;  250,000,- 
000  bushels  of  barley;  40,000,000  bushels  of  rye;  22,000,000 
bushels  of  buckwheat;  425,000,000  bushels  of  potatoes;  77,000,- 
000  tons  of  hay;  30,000,000  bushels  of  flaxseed;  7,000,000,000 
pounds  of  cotton;  more  than  1,000,000,000  pounds  of  tobacco; 
2,000,000  long  tons  of  sugar  and  275,000,000  pounds  of  wool. 

There  are  nearly  70,000,000  swine,  and  as  many  cattle, 
more  than  25,000,000  head  of  horses  and  mules,  and  62,000,000 
sheep.  Coal  is  mined  at  the  rate  of  more  than  500,000,000  tons 
yearly,  and  the  copper  mines  yield  1,250,000,000  pounds  of 
metal.  Petroleum  wells  yield  225,500,000  barrels  yearly. 
There  are  270,000  manufacturing  plants  with  a  yearly  output 
of  more  than  $25,000,000,000.  The  products  of  the  farm  total 
more  than  $11,000,000,000  annually. 

As  to  Germany's  position,  economists  all  over  the  world 
have  considered  her  position  as  not  only  lacking  soundness, 
but  as  crazy — crazy  in  that  no  attention  whatever  has  appar- 


THE  TEERIBLE  PRICE.  327 

ently  been  paid  to  what  are  recognized  as  firmly  fixed  economic 
laws.  The  world  has  been  at  a  loss  to  miderstand  Germany's 
attitude,  and  it  can  only  be  explained  by  assuming  that  Ger- 
many was  perfectly  well  aware  of  the  entire  unsoundness  of 
her  commercial  and  financial  position,  and  was  willing,  or,  in 
fact,  had  to  risk  everything  with  the  hope  of  acquu^ing  sufficient 
indemnity,  resulting  from  the  war,  to  bring  her  financial  affairs 
to  a  sound  basis.  Germany's  entire  structure  from  the  close  of 
the  Franco-Prussian  war  evidently  was  built  upon  rotten 
foundations. 


^CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE  WOELD  RULERS  AT  WAR. 

WcoDEOw  Wilson,  ths  Champion  of  Democeacy— The  Egotistical  Kaisee— 
The  Geeman  Cbown  Peince — Bbitain's  Monaech— Constantinb  Who  Quit 
Eathes  than  Fight  Geemant — Peesident  Poincaiee— And  Otheb  National 

Heads. 

NO  matter  what  the  human  frailties  may  be  there  are  al- 
ways men  who  rise  in  the  stress  of  circmnstances  to  unex- 
pected heights.  They  thrive  upon  difficulties  and  in  the 
emergencies  become  protectors  and  saviors  of  men.  In  the 
world's  greatest  melting-pot — the  biu-ned  and  blood-stained 
battle-fields  of  Europe — ^there  were  tried  and  tested  milhons 
of  men  of  all  nationalities  and  characteristics,  and  though  the 
experience  was  one  of  bitterness,  there  was  found  in  it  the 
satisfaction  that  in  their  own  way  millions  of  men  proved 
themselves  great. 

Out  of  the  hordes  that  rode  over  moxmtains,  sailed  the 
seas  or  picked  their  way  through  trenches  and  across  the 
scarred  surface  of  the  earth  there  looms  the  figures  of  some 
whose  names  will  go  down  in  history  for  all  time.  Their  names 
will  be  written  indelibly  upon  the  pages  of  life  and  they  will  be 
laiown  for  ages  after  the  evidences  of  the  great  strife  have 
been  obliterated  and  the  peace  for  which  the  world  struggled 
has  been  made  a  permanent  thing. 

Among  those  whose  names  will  be  forever  linked  with  the 
terrible  war  as  a  leader  of  men — ^whose  figure  stands  out 
against  the  mass  of  humanity — ^is  Woodrow  Wilson,  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  of  America.  Though  he  neither 
faced  bullets  nor  tramped  the  historic  byways  of  Europe  in 
ffie  terrible  struggle,  he  was  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the 
commander-in-chief  of  all  the  world  forces  seeking  to  break 
the  autocratic  domination  of  the  HohenzoUems  of  Germany 


THE  WORLD  RULERS   AT  WAR.  329 

and  give  democracy;  its  place  among  the  nations  of  the  world 
iwhich  its  character  justifies. 

President  Wilson,  when  he  was  elevated  to  the  highest 
position  in  America  which  the  Nation  could  bestow,  was 
recognized  as  one  of  the  greatest  essayists  and  students  of 
history,  political  economy,  constitutional  law  and  government 
in  the  country.  And  those  who  made  light  of  his  *'book- 
learning"  and  referred  to  him  as  "the  school-master  president," 
came  to  know  that  his  training  and  the  very  character  of  his 
life's  work  fitted  him  better  than  probably  any  other  man  in 
America  to  deal  with  the  great  national  and  international 
problems  which  confronted,  which  culminated  with  or  grew 
out  of  America's  entrance  into  the  great  war. 

WILSON'S  MANY  HONORS. 

He  was  born  in  Staunton,  Va.,  in  1856,  the  son  of  Rev. 
Joseph  Woodrow  Wilson,  and  received  his  early  education  at 
Davidson  College,  N.  C.  Subsequently  he  received  a  degree 
at  Princeton  University  and  graduated  in  law  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Virginia,  later  practicing  law  at  Atlanta.  After  this 
he  received  degrees  at  Johns  Hopkins,  Rutgers,  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  Brown,  Dartmouth,  Harvard  and  Yale  Col- 
leges, and  was  professor  of  history  and  pohtical  economy,  first 
at  Bryn  Mawr  College  and  later  at  Wesleyan  University,  and 
finally  professor  of  jurisprudence  and  political  economy,  then 
jurisprudence  and  politics  and  afterward  president  at  Prince- 
ton University,  from  which  post  he  was  elected  Governor  of 
the  State  of  New  Jersey  in  1913.  He  resigned  from  the 
Governorship  and  was  elected  President  of  the  United  States 
for  a  term  beginning  March,  1913,  and  was  re-dected  in 
November,  1916,  for  a  second  term  beginning  March,  1917, 
both  times  on  the  Democratic  ticket. 

As  against  the  figure  of  President  Wilson  there  stands 
that  of  the  Emperor  William  of  Germany,  whose  policies  indi- 
rectly precipitated  the  war  and  impelled  the  alignment  of 


330  THE  WOELD  EULERS  AT  WAE. 

nations  to  defend  themselves  against  his  autocratic  domination. 
For  years  the  head  of  the  House  of  Hohenzollern,  descendant 
of  the  ancient  margraves  of  Germany  who  have  battled  with 
the  old  Romans,  made  it  manifest  in  speech  and  by  action  that 
his  ambition  was  to  create  a  world  empire. 

GERMANY  MUST  BE  RECKONED  WITH. 
Once  at  the  launching  of  one  of  the  great  German  war- 
ships he  said:  **The  ocean  teaches  us  that  on  its  waves  and 
on  its  most  distant  shores  no  great  decision  can  any  longer  be 
taken  without  Germany  and  without  the  German  Emperor, 
I  do  not  think  that  it  was  in  order  to  allow  themselves  to  be 
excluded  from  big  foreign  affairs  that,  thirty  years  ago,  our 
people,  led  by  their  princes,  conquered  and  shed  their  blood. 
Were  the  German  people  to  let  themselves  be  treated  thus,  it 
would  be,  and  forever,  the  end  of  then-  world-power;  and  I  do 
not  mean  that  that  shall  ever  cease.  To  employ,  in  order  to 
prevent  it,  the  suitable  means,  if  need  be  extreme  means,  is  my 
duty  and  my  highest  privilege." 

In  a  famous  interview  in  the  London  "Daily  Mail"  in 
1908,  discussing  the  attitude  of  Germany  toward  England,  the 
Kaiser  was  quoted  as  follows: 

"You  English,"  he  said,  "are  mad,  mad,  mad  as  March 
hares.  What  has  come  over  you  that  you  are  so  completely 
given  over  to  suspicions  quite  unworthy  of  a  great  nation? 
What  more  can  I  do  than  I  have  done?  I  declared  vrith  all 
the  emphasis  at  my  command,  in  my  speech  at  Guildhall,  that 
my  heart  is  set  upon  peace,  and  that  it  is  one  of  my  dearest 
wishes  to  live  on  the  best  of  terms  with  England.  Have  I  ever 
been  false  to  my  word?  Falsehood  and  prevarication  are  alien 
to  my  nature.  My  actions  ought  to  speak  for  themselves,  but 
you  listen  not  to  them  but  to  those  who  misinterpret  and  dis- 
tort them.  That  is  a  personal  insult  which  I  feel  and  resent. 
To  be  forever  misjudged,  to  have  my  repeated  offers  of 
friendship  weighed  and  scrutinized  with  jealous,  mistrustful 


THE  WORLD  EULERS  AT  WAR.  331 

eyes,  taxes  my  patience  severely.  I  have  said  time  after  time 
that  I  am  a  friend  of  England,  and  yom*  Press — or  at  least  a 
considerable  section  of  it — ^bids  the  people  of  England  refuse 
my  proffered  hand,  and  insinuates  that  the  other  holds  a 
dagger.    How  can  I  convince  a  nation  against  its  will?" 

And  then  as  if  to  impress  upon  the  world  the  belief  that 
he  was  chosen  of  God,  the  Kaiser  repeatedly  gave  voice  to  such 
bombastic  utterances  as  when  to  his  son  in  Brandenburg,  he 
declared:  "I  look  upon  the  people  and  nation  handed  on  to 
me  as  a  responsibility  conferred  upon  me  by  God,  and  that  it 
is,  as  is  written  in  the  Bible,  my  duty  to  increase  this  heritage, 
for  which  one  day  I  shall  be  called  upon  to  give  an  account; 
those  who  try  to  interfere  with  my  task  I  shall  crush." 

THK  "GOD-APPOINTED"  HOHENZOLLERNS. 

Again  he  expressed  the  same  sentiment  when  he  said: 
*'It  is  a  tradition  of  our  House,  that  we,  the  HohenzoUerns, 
regard  ourselves  as  appointed  by  God  to  govern  and  to  lead 
the  people,  whom  it  is  given  us  to  rule,  for  their  well-being 
and  the  advancement  of  their  material  and  intellectual 
interests." 

And  finally  in  his  address  to  the  people  in  August,  1914!, 
he  said  at  the  beginning  of  war:  "A  fateful  hour  has  fallen 
for  Germany.  Envious  peoples  everywhere  are  compelling 
us  to  our  just  defence.  The  sword  has  been  forced  into  our 
hands.  I  hope  that  if  my  efforts  at  the  last  hour  do  not  suc- 
ceed in  bringing  our  opponents  to  see  eye  to  eye  with  us  and 
in  maintaining  the  peace,  we  shall,  with  God's  help,  so  wield 
the  sword  that  we  shall  restore  it  to  its  sheath  again  with 
honor. 

*'War  would  demand  of  us  an  enormous  sacrifice  in  prop- 
erty and  life,  but  we  should  show  our  enemies  what  it  means 
to  provoke  Germany.  And  now  I  commend  you  to  God.  Go 
to  church  and  kneel  before  God,  and  pray  for  His  help  for 
Qur  gallant  army." 


332  THE  WORLD  EULERS  AT  WAR. 

This  is  the  picture  of  "Kaiser  Bill"  whose  egotism  gave 
expression  to  itself  in  1910  when  in  a  speech  he  said:  *'Con- 
sidering  myself  as  the  instrument  of  the  Lord,  without  heed- 
ing the  views  and  opinions  of  the  day,  I  go  my  way." 

EMPEROR  WILLIAM'S  CHILDREN. 

William  II,  Emperor  of  Germany  and  King  of  Prussia, 
was  born  January  27,  1859,  succeeding  his  father.  Emperor 
Frederick  the  III,  in  June,  1888.  He  married  the  Princess 
Augusta  Victoria,  of  Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg- Angus- 
tenburg,  and  had  the  following  issue:  Frederick  WiUiam, 
Crown  Prince,  born  May  6,  1882;  WiUiam  Eitel-Frederick, 
born  1883;  Adalbert,  born  1884;  August,  born  1887;  Oscar, 
born  1888;  Joachim,  born  1890,  and  .Victoria  Louise,  born 
1892. 

Crown  Prince  Frederick  William  is  one  of  the  remark- 
able figures  of  the  war.  A  profound  admirer  of  Napoleon  he 
has  always  made  a  close  study  of  that  great  French  soldier, 
and  has  long  been  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  war-seeking  element 
in  Germany.  The  Crown  Prince,  who  was  born  in  1882,  is 
tall,  sUm  and  impulsive.  The  late  Queen  Victoria,  his  great 
grandmother,  was  his  godmother. 

After  he  had  completed  a  military  course  he  attended 
Bonn  University,  and  ,  on  the  completion  of  Ms  college  course 
he  set  out  on  extensive  travels.  After  his  return  he  was  placed 
in  the  offices  of  the  Potsdam  provincial  government  so  that 
he  might  study  local  administration.  After  completing  this 
study  he  was  given  a  com-se  in  the  intricate  routine  through 
which  two-thii^ds  of  the  German  people  are  governed,  by  being 
placed  in  the  Prussian  Ministry  of  the  Interior.  Naval 
administration  has  also  been  a  part  of  the  studies  of  the  Crown 
Prince,  in  fact  he  was  deeply  engrossed  in  that  study  when 
the  war  was  declared. 

The  Cro^vn  Prince  married  Duchess  Cecille  of  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin,  in  1905. 


THE  WOELD  EULEES  AT  WAE.  333 

King  George  V,  of  Great  Britain,  the  only  surviving  son 
of  the  late  King  Edward,  was  born  in  1865.  He  was  the 
second  son  of  the  king,  his  brother  Prince  Albert,  the  heir  to 
the  throne,  dying  suddenly  in  1892  and  bringing  the  second 
son,  who  had  been  destined  for  the  navy,  into  direct  succession. 
In  1893  Princess  Mary  of  Teck,  who  was  to  have  married 
Prince  Albert,  was  married  to  Prince  George,  and  there  is 
one  daughter,  Princess  Mary,  and  five  sons — Edward,  Pruice 
of  Wales,  and  Princes  Albert,  Henr}^  George  and  John. 
THE  DUKE  OF  CONNAUGHT. 

Prince  Arthur,  the  Duke  of  Connaught,  who  is  now 
Governor  General  of  Canada,  is  an  uncle  of  the  King.  He 
was  married  to  Princess  Louise-Margaret  of  Prussia,  the 
daughter  of  Prince  Frederick-Charles  of  Prussia  and  Princess 
Marie- Anne  of  Anhalt.  He  has  three  children;  Margaret, 
the  oldest,  is  the  Crown  Princess  of  Sweden;  Prince  Arthur 
is  married  to  his  cousin.  Princess  Alexandra,  Duchess  of  Fife, 
and  Princess  Victoria-Patricia,  who  is  unmarried. 

King  Edward  had  three  brothers  and  five  sisters,  two 
brothers  falling  heir  in  turn  to  the  Duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha. 

King  George  V  is  uncle  by  blood  to  Olaf,  Crown  Prince 
of  Norway,  and  by  marriage  with  Queen  Mary,  to  three 
Princes  and  three  Princesses  of  Teck.  He  is  brother-in-law  to 
King  Haakon  VII  of  Non\^ay  and  Prince  of  Denmark,  Duke 
Adolph  of  Teck,  and  Prince  Alexander  of  Teck.  He  is  a  first 
cousin  on  his  father's  side  to  Emperor  William  II  of  Ger- 
many, and  his  brothers  and  sisters,  among  whom,  principally, 
is  the  Queen  of  Greece;  to  Ernst-Louis,  Grand  Duke  of 
Hesse,  and  his  four  sisters^  one  of  whom,  is  the  wife  of  Prince 
Henry  of  Prussia,  and  another  is  AHce,  former  Czarina  of 
Russia.  The  first  and  second  cousins  of  the  King  run  well  up 
into  the  hundreds. 

The  Royal  Family  of  Belgium  was  founded  when,  in 


334  THE  WORLD  RULERS  AT  WAR 

1831,  the  people  elected  King  Leopold  I  to  rule  the  destinies 
of  that  country.  The  king  was  married  to  Princess  Louise 
of  Orleans,  after  which  practically  all  the  marriages  of  the 
family  were  with  the  southern  group  of  royal  houses. 

There  were  three  children  born  to  the  couple,  the  oldest 
son  succeeding  to  the  throne  as  King  Leopold  II.  The  latter 
married  Archduchess  Marie  Henriette  of  Austria.  One  son, 
and  three  daughters  were  bom,  the  son  dying  when  he  was  23 
years  old.  The  oldest  of  the  daughters  became  the  wife  of 
Prince  Philip  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  the  second  wedding 
Cro^n  Prince  Rudolph  of  Austria-Hungary,  who  died  in 
youth,  and  the  third  becoming  the  wife  of  Prince  Napoleon 
Bonaparte.  The  daughter  of  Leopold  I  is  the  widow  of  the 
ill-fated  Emperor  Maximilian  of  Mexico,  who  was  executed 
there  in  1867. 

SECOND  SON  OF  LEOPOLD  L 

The  second  son  of  Leopold  I  was  Phihp,  the  Count  of 
Flanders,  who  was  married  to  Princess  Marie  of  Hohen- 
zollern,  sister  of  the  Prince  Leopold  of  HohenzoUern  and 
King  Charles  of  Roumania.  The  son  to  this  marriage  is  King 
Albert  of  Belgium,  who  succeeded  his  uncle,  Leopold  II,  in 
1909.  The  Queen  of  Belgium  is  Princess  Elizabeth  of  the 
Ducal  House  of  Bavaria,  Through  her  King  Albert  is  allied 
to  the  Crown  Prince  of  Bavaria,  the  Grand  Duchess  of  Lux- 
emburg, the  Duke  of  Parma,  the  late  Franz  Ferdinand  of  Aus- 
tria, and  the  present  heir-apparent,  Archduke  Charles  Francis 
Joseph.  The  King  and  Queen  have  two  sons,  Leopold,  born  in 
1902,  and  Charles  Theodore,  who  is  two  years  younger.  There 
is  also  a  daughter,  the  Princess  Marie- Josephine,  born  in  1906. 

King  Nicholas  I,  ruler  of  the  picturesque  little  country 
of  Montenegro,  which  was  the  scene  of  much  bitter  fighting, 
was  born  October  7,  184.1,  and  proclaimed  Prince  of  Monte- 
negro, as  successor  to  his  uncle  Danilo  I,  in  1800.  He  became 
fcing  in  1910.    Nichoto^  I  married  Mikm  Petrovnet  Vucotic, 


THE  WORLD  RULEES  AT  WAR.  335 

The  children  are  Princess  Militza,  who  married  the  Russian 
Grand  Duke  Peter  Nikolaievitch ;  Princess  Stana,  who  mar- 
ried George,  Duke  of  Leuchtenberg,  but  which  marriage  was 
dissolved,  the  Princess  subsequently  marrying  the  Russian 
Grand  Duke  Nicholas  Nikolaievitch.  The  other  children  are 
Prince  Danilo  Alexander,  heir-apparent;  Princess  Helena, 
who  married  Victor  Emmanuel,  King  of  Italy;  Princess  Anna, 
who  married  Prince  Francis  Joseph  of  Battenberg;  Prince 
Mirko,  who  married  Natalie  Const antinovitch ;  Princess  Zenia, 
Princess  Vera  and  finally  Prince  Peter,  who  was  born  in  1889. 

KING  OF  SERVIA. 

Peter  I,  King  of  Servia,  one  of  the  figures  of  the  war,  is 
the  son  of  Alexander  Kara-Georgevitch.  He  was  born  in 
Belgrade  in  1844,  and  was  proclaimed  King  after  the  murder 
of  King  Alexander  and  Queen  Draga.  He  ascended  the 
throne  on  June  2,  1903.  He  was  married  in  1883  to  Princess 
Zorka,  of  Montenegro,  who  died  in  1890.  He  has  two  sons 
and  a  daughter;  George,  who  was  born  in  1887,  and  who 
renounced  his  right  to  the  throne  in  1909;  Alexander,  born  in 
1889,  and  Helen,  who  was  born  in  1884.  Because  of  his  ill 
health  King  Peter,  for  a  long  time,  delegated  authority  to  his 
son  Alexander  for  the  purpose  of  government. 

Nicholas  II,  the  last  Czar  of  Russia,  who  abdicated  in 
June,  1917,  was  born  May  18,  1868,  and  succeeded  his  father. 
Emperor  Alexander  III,  on  November  1,  1894.  He  married 
Princess  Alexandra  Ahce,  daughter  of  Ludwig  IV,  Grand 
Duke  of  Hesse,  and  has  four  daughters  and  one  son:  Olga, 
Tatinia,  Marie,  Anastasia  and  Alexis. 

The  family  is  descended  in  the  female  line  from  Michael 
Romanof,  first  elected  Czar  in  1613,  and,  in  the  male  line, 
from  Duke  Karl  Frederick  of  Holstein-Gottorp.  As  the 
result  of  intermarriages  and  connections  with  the  royal  houses 
of  Germany,  they  are  practically  Germans  by  blood. 


336  THE  WOELD  EULERS  AT  WAE. 

It  was  in  fact  the  German  influence,  which  is  said  to  have 
been  the  immediate  cause  of  the  revolt  in  the  great  country. 

The  revolution  may  be  said  to  have  had  its  inception 
[when  a  small  group  of  men  opposed  to  the  German  influence 
at  court  assassinated  the  monk  Gregory  Rasputin,  who  had  a 
gi'eat  influence  over  the  Czar. 

A  REACTIONARY  CABINET  INSTALLED. 

Czar  Nicholas  in  anger  dismissed  Premier  Trepoff  and 
installed  a  thoroughly  reactionary  Cabinet.  Trepoff  had  been 
in  oflice  only  a  short  time,  having  followed  M.  Stm-me:-,  who 
had  bitterly  fought  the  Duma.  It  had  been  commonly 
reported  that  the  real  power  in  the  Russian  Government  after 
Sturmer  went  out  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Minister  of  the 
Interior,  M.  Protopopoff.  Sturmer  had  been  called  to  the 
premiership  to  succeed  M.  jGoreanykin,  who  was  in  office  when 
the  war  began. 

The  fact  that  Michael  Rodzianko,  president  of  the  Duma 
and  one  of  the  leading  advocates  of  liberalization  of  the 
Government,  was  named  as  the  chief  figure  in  the  provisional 
government,  showed  that  the  movement  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
same  forces  which  had  demanded  the  overthrow  of  the  bureau- 
cracy and  a  more  energetic  prosecution  of  the  war. 

There  were  many  changes  in  the  Russian  Government 
during  the  war,  although  the  censorship  was  enforced  so 
rigidly  that  the  significance  of  the  rapid  shifts  was  apparent. 
Vague  reports  reached  the  outside  world  of  high  councilors  of 
State  who  were  obstructing  instead  of  assisting  the  work  of 
carrying  on  the  war,  and  the  strength  of  German  influence  at 
Petrograd.  The  most  conspicuous  case  of  this  sort  was  that 
of  General  Soukhomlinoff,  former  Minister  of  War,  who  was 
dismissed  from  office  and  imprisoned  as  a  result  of  charges  of 
criminal  negligence  and  high  treason. 

M.  Sazonoff,  Russia's  Foreign  Minister  at  the  beginning 
of  the  war  and  an  ardent  believer  in  the  prosecution  pf  the 


THE  WOELD  RULEES  AT  WAE.  337 

war,  was  deposed  early  in  the  reactionary  regime  and  sent  as 
envoy  to  London.  It  was  suggested  that  the  motive  for  this 
was  not  to  honor  an  anti-Cerman,  but  to  get  him  out  of 

Russia. 

MEMBERS  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  CABINET. 

The  members  of  the  Russian  Cabinet,  as  announced  for 
the  Provisional  Government,  were: 

Prince  Georges  E.  Lvoff,  well  known  as  president  of  the 
Zemstvos'  Union,  Prime  Minister. 

Alexander  J.  Guchkoff,  Minister  of  the  Interior. 

Paul  Milukoff,  well  kno^vn  as  a  Constitutional  Democrat 
leader,  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

M.  Pokrovski,  Minister  of  Finance. 

General  Manikovski,  chief  of  the  Artillery  Department, 
War  Minister. 

M.  Savitch,  Minister  of  Marine. 

M.  Maklakoff,  Minister  of  Justice. 

M.  Kovalevski,  Minister  of  Education. 

M.  Nekrasoff,  Minister  of  Railways. 

M.  Konovaloff,  Moscow  merchant.  Minister  of.  Com- 
merce and  Industry. 

M.  Rodischneff,  Secretary  for  Fuiland. 

M.  Kerenski,  Minister  without  portfolio. 

The  executive  committee  of  the  Imperial  Duma,  ss  the 
provisional  Government  styles  itself,  is  composed  of  twelve 
members,  under  M.  Rodzianko,  including  two  Socialists,  two 
Conservatives,  three  Moderates,  five  Constitutional  Demo» 
crats  and  Progressives. 

Constantine  I,  King  of  Greece,  who  abdicated  in  favor 
of  his  son,  Prince  Alexander,  on  June  11, 1917,  under  pressure 
from  the  Allied  countries,  was  born  in  1868.  His  father.  King 
George,  was  assassinated  at  Salonica  on  March  18, 1913.  The 
abdication  of  King  Constantine  in  June,  1917,  was  due  to  his 
opposition  to  the  forces  in  the  government  which  desired  to 


338  THE  WOELD  EULEES  AT  WAR. 

join  the  iiJlies  in  the  war  against  Germany.  The  influence 
m  favor  of  the  Germans  in  the  royal  family  of  Greece  ^as 
t^ueen  Sophia,  a  sister  of  the  Kaiser. 

T.  Jal  l*'T  ^^^^^^^nt^^e  ^as  a  veritable  idol  in  Greece. 
in  1896  when  his  country  was  drifting  into  war  with  Turkey 
he  sounded  a  warning  that  the  Greek  army  was  unprepared 
lor  a  canipaign.     The  infantry  was  armed  with  condemned 
l^rench  rifles;  the  cartridges  were  15  years  old;  there  was  no 
cavalry;  the  artillery  was  obsolete,  and  the  officers  few.    When 
the  country  went  to  war  despite  his  warning,  the  result  was  a 
disastrous  defeat.    A  similar  situation  developed  when  King 
George  tried  to  oppose  the  popular  clamor  for  the  annexation 
ot  Crete.  The  King  knew  that  Turkey  was  waiting  for  another 
opportunity  to  crush  Greece,  and  there  was  a  second  uprising. 
CONSTANTINE  BECOMES  AN  IDOL. 
Constantine  had  been  in  command  of  the  mihtary  forces, 
and  King  George  was  obliged  to  dismiss  him  as  Generahssimo. 
In  the  Balkan  war  of  1912,  however,  when  he  led  an  army  of 
10,000  Greeks  to  the  capture  of  Salonica,  causing  30,000 
1  urks  to  lay  down    arms,  he  became  an  idol.    On  ascending 
the  throne,  it  was  said  that  he  aimed  to  restore  the  grandeur 
ot  theancient  HeUenic  Empire,  and  that  he  was  a  firm  be- 
liever m  the  old  national  prophecy  that,  under  the  reign  of  a 
Constantme  and  a  Sophia,"  the  Eastern  Empire  would  be 
rejuvenated  and  the  cross  restored  on  Saint  Sophia  in  Con- 
stantinople, supplanting  the  Crescent  of  the  Turk.    In  fact 
after  the  Balkan  war,  when  Greece  added  a  section  of  Turkish 
territory  to  her  domain,  and  the  islands  of  Crete  were  annexed 
King  Constantine  hoisted  the  ancient  Hellenic  flag  over  the 
fort.  o  - 

The  climax  in  Grecian  affairs  was  precipitated  when  Tur- 
key entered  the  great  World  War  on  the  side  of  Germany. 
The  question  of  intervention  on  the  part  of  Greece  arose,  and 
King  Constantine  insisted  on  strict  neutrality  being  observed. 


THE  WORLD  RULERS  AT  WAR.  339 

The  cabinet,  headed  by  Premier  Venizelos,  which  was  for  war 
on  the  side  of  the  Allies,  tendered  its  resignation.  When  the 
operations  began  against  the  Dardanelles  the  Government 
beheved  that  the  time  had  come  for  Greece  to -enter  the  war. 
The  King  refused  to  countenance  the  plan,  arguing  that  the 
sending  of  forces  to  the  Dardanelles  would  dangerously 
weaken  the  Greek  defences  on  the  Bulgarian  frontier.  Queen 
Sophia  was  regarded  as  bitterly  opposed  to  the  coimtry  join- 
ing the  Alhes,  and  was  reported  to  have  threatened  several 
times  to  leave  the  country. 

The  criticism  directed  against  Constantine  was  severe  be- 
cause, under  the  terms  of  the  treaty  made  in  the  Balkan  war, 
Greece  was  committed  to  ally  herself  with  Servia  if  that  coun- 
try were  attacked  by  another  power.  Austria  did  invade 
Servia,  but  Constantine  asserted  that  the  treaty  apphed  only 
to  an  attack  by  another  Balkan  nation. 

ACCUSED  OF  EVASION. 

The  occupation  by  troops  of  the  Entente  Powers  of  a 
part  of  Macedonia,  and  the  seizui^e  of  Salonica  as  their  base, 
involved  the  King  of  Greece  in  a  long  series  of  clashes  with 
the  Entente  commanders,  and  he  was  accused  of  evasion  and 
attempting  to  gain  time  in  the  interests  of  Germany.  A  tem- 
porary understanding  was  obtained,  but  meantime  the  pro- 
visional government,  headed  by  Venizelos,  had  been  growing 
in  strength,  and  obtained  the  recognition  of  the  Entente 
Powers. 

The  Allies  laid  an  embargo  on  the  supplies  of  Greece, 
and  Constantine  was  denounced  by  the  people  of  Crete  and 
other  territory,  who  demanded  his  dethronement.  This  was 
the  situation,  in  a  general  way,  which  led  to  his  abdication 
and  his  retirement  to  Berlin,  with  the  Queen,  in  the  summer 
of  1917. 

Alexander,  who  succeeded  his  father,  was  a  second  son, 


340  THE  WOELD  RULERS  AT  WAR. 

born  August  1,  1893.    He  was  a  captain  in  the  First  Re^- 
ment,  artillery,  in  the  Greek  army. 

Victor  Emmanuel,  King  of  Italy,  who  threw  the  weight 
of  his  country  with  the  Allies,  repudiating  the  treaty  with 
Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  which  established  what  was 
known  as  the  Triple  Entente,  was  born  in  1869,  the  only  son 
of  King  Humbert,  second  King  of  United  Italy,  who  was 
mm^dered  at  Monza,  in  July,  1900.  Victor  Emmanuel  married 
Princess  Elena,  daughter  of  Nicholas,  King  of  Montenegro, 
and  has  four  children:  Princess  Yolanda,  Princess  Mafalda; 
Prince  Humbert,  heir-apparent,  and  Princess  Giovanna.  The 
mother  of  King  Emmanuel— Dowager  Queen  Margherita— 
is  a  daughter  of  the  later  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Savoy. 

TRAGEDY  THE  PATHWAY  TO  THRONE. 

Charles  I,  the  Emperor  of  Austria  and  King  of  Hungary, 
was  born  in  1887  and  succeeded  his  grand  uncle,  Francis 
Joseph  I,  in  November,  1916.  His  way  to  the  throne  lay 
through  tragedy,  for  he  came  into  the  crown  immediately 
through  the  assassination  of  the  Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand, 
heir-apparent,  and  his  morganatic  wife  Countess  Sophie 
Chotek,  in  Bosnia,  and  which  crime  was  the  signal  for  the  war. 
Nor  would  Charles  have  been  entitled  to  succeed  to  the  throne 
but  for  the  fact  that  the  Archduke  Rudolf,  heir-apparent  to 
the  throne,  committed  suicide  in  1889. 

The  right  of  succession  went  with  his  death  to  the  second 
brother  of  the  then  Em.peror  Francis  Joseph,  or  Archduke 
Charles  Louis,  father  of  the  assassinated  Archduke  Francis 
Ferdinand.  It  passed  then  after  the  tragedies  to  Archduke 
Otto,  brother  of  Francis  Ferdinand,  Charles  I,  being  the  son 
of  the  Archduke  Otto.  The  young  Emperor  married  Princess 
Zita  of  Bom-bon  Parma  in  1911,  Slie  is  the  daughter  of  Duke 
Robert  of  Parma,  and  sister  of  the  first  wife  of  Czar  Ferdi- 
nand of  Bulgaria.     The  Emperor  has  four  children:  Francis 


THE  WOKLD  RULEES  AT  WAR  ^^ 

•Joseph  Otto,  Adelaide  Marie,  Robert  Charles  Ludwig  and 
FeUx  Frederic  August. 

Ferdinand  of  Bulgaria,  Czar,  is  son  of  the  late  Prince 
Augustus  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha  and  late  Princess  Clem- 
entine of  Bourbon-Orleans,  daughter  of  King  Louis  Phil- 
ippe. He  was  born  in  1861  and  succeeded  Prince  Alexander, 
who  abdicated.  He  married  Marie  Louise,  daughter  of 
Robert  of  Parma,  and  after  her  death  married  Princess  Elea- 
nore  of  Reuss-Kostritz.  There  are  foiu-  children  by  the  first 
marriage:  Prince  Boris,  heir-apparent;  Prince  Cyril,  Princess 
Eudoxia,  Princess  Nadejda. 

Alfonso  XIII,  King  of  Spain,  was  born  May  17,  1886, 
his  father,  King  Alfonso  XII,  having  died  nearly  six  months 
previous  to  his  birth.  Maria  Christina,  mother  of  the  heir  to 
the  Spanish  throne,  was  an  Austrian  princess.  In  1906  King 
Alfonso  XIII  married  the  English  Princess  Victoria  Eugenie, 
daughter  of  the  late  Henry  of  Battenberg  and  Princess 
Beatrice,  a  daughter  of  the  late  Queen  Victoria. 

KING  ALFONSO'S  SONS. 

King  Alfonso  XIII  has  four  sons:  Alfonso,  Prince  of 
the  Asturias,  heir  to  the  Spanish  tlirone;  Prince  Jaime,  who 
is  deaf  and  dumb;  Prince  Juan,  and  Prince  Gonzalo.  There 
are  two  daughters,  Princess  Beatrice,  and  Princess  Maria 
Christina. 

The  King's  sisters  were  Maria  de  las  Mercedes,  who  mar- 
ried Prince  Carlos  of  Bourbon,  in  February,  1901,  and  died 
in  1904,  and  Infanta  Maria  Teresa,  who  died  suddenly  from 
the  effects  of  childbirth.  She  was  the  wife  of  Prince  Ferdi- 
nand, who  afterward  remarried  Dona  Maria  Luisa  Pie  de  Con- 
cha, who  was  created  Duchess  of  Talavera  de  la  Reina,  and 
given  the  courtesy  title  of  Highness  by  Alfonso.  Don  Carlos, 
who  was  born  in  1848,  and  was  the  pretender  to  the  Spanish 
throne,  was  a  second  cousin  to  the  King.  He  died  in  1909,  leav- 


342  THE  WORLD  EULEE8  AT  WAR. 

ing  a  son.  Prince  Jamie,  born  in  1870,  and  who  is  the  present 
pretender,  and  four  daughters. 

The  Spanish  reigning  family  are  the  Bourbons,  descend- 
ants of  King  Louis  XIV  of  France. 

Ferdinand,  King  of  Roumania,  was  born  in  1865,  and  is 
a  nephew  of  the  late  King  Carol,  who  died  in  1914.  In  1893 
he  married  Princess  Marie  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha,  and 
two  sons  and  four  daughters  were  born  to  the  royal  couple  as 
follows:  Charles,  who  was  born  in  1893,  and  who  is  heir- 
apparent;  Nicholas,  Ehzabeth,  Marie.  Ileana  and  Mircia,  the 
latter  dying  when  four  years  old. 

POINCAIRE'S  VERSATILITY. 

President  Poincaire,  of  France,  is  a  bearded,  pale-faced, 
short,  and  rather  stout  man,  who  leaves  upon  those  who  come 
m  contact  with  him,  an  impression  of  his  mental  ability.     He 
was  born  in  1860,  and  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  few  strong 
characters  who  have  held  the  office  of  President  since  the  war 
which  brought  about  the  third  Republic.     He  is  an  author  of 
widely  read  books,   and  has   won  a  place  in  the   I'rench 
Academy.     As  a  lawyer  he  was  a  leader  at  the  bar,  and  before 
being  chosen  President,  in  1913,  he  served  as  Minister  of 
Finance,  and  as  Minister  of  Public  Instruction.     While  serv- 
mg  as  Minister  of  Finance  he  is  credited  with  having  put  on 
the  statutes  admirable  laws  regulating  and  equalizing  the  tax- 
ations of  miUions.     President  Poincaire  is  a  patron  of  art, 
and  has  been  counsel  of  the  Beaux  Art,  of  the  National 
Museum  and  President  of  the  Society  of  Friends  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris. 

The  Sultan  of  Turkey,  the  outstanding  nation  in  the 
conflict,  not  Christian,  was  chosen  ruler  and  took  the  Osman 
sword  on  May  10,  1909,  and  was  designated  Mohammed  V. 
His  name  is  Mohammed  Reshad  Effendi.  and  he  succeeded 
Abd-ul-Hamid,  who  was  deposed.     The  latter  became  Sultan 


THE  WORLD  EULEES  AT  WAE.  ^^^ 

in  1876,  succeeding  Abd-ul-Aziz,  who  was  preceded  by  Abd- 
ul-Mejid. 

The  history  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  is  filled  with  mystery, 
romance  and  stories  of  intrigue,  cruelty  and  barbarities,  involv- 
ing internal  wars,  uprisings,  almost  continuous  struggles  with 
practically  all  of  the  European  countries  and  massacres  that 
aroused  the  whole  world.  Legend  assigns  Oghuz,  son  of  Kara 
Khan,  father  of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  whose  first  appearance 
in  history  dates  back  to  1227  A.  D. 

The  reign  of  Abd-ul-Aziz  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last 
century  was  marked  by  many  massacres  and  the  extravagant 
conduct  of  affairs  by  the  Sultan,  who  visited  England  in  1876 
and  was  honored  by  Queen  Victoria,  who  bestowed  upon  him 
the  Order  of  the  Garter.  He  was  deposed  and  Abd-ul- 
Hamid  succeeded.  He  made  feeble  attempts  to  reorganize 
the  Government,  but  his  efforts  were  fruitless  and  following 
wars  and  uprisings  and  further  internal  troubles  and  the  loss 
of  territory  he  was  deposed  and  the  present  Sultan  was  chosen. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
THE  WAR'S  WHO'S  WHO. 

Striking  Pia^s  in  the  CoN^c^Jon^EE,  the  Heeo  of  M^EN^Niyzui.  th« 

r^NE  of  the  most  striking  figures  among  those  whose 
V^  names  are  irrevocably  linked  with  the  history  of  the 
world  fight  for  democracy,  is  that  of  Joseph  Joflfre, 
Marshal  of  France,  former  Commander  of  the  French  forces 
and  victor  of  the  famous  battle  of  the  Marne,  who  led  the 
French  Mission  to  the  United  States,  after  America  entered 
the  war. 

The  Commander-in-Chief  of  aU  the  French  armies,  a  man 
of  humble  birth,  saw  the  light  of  day  at  Perpignan,  near  the 
Pyrenees,  m  1852. 

The  future  General  early  showed  a  deep  interest  in  mathe- 
matics and  obtained  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  at  the 
Col  ege  of  Perpignan  at  the  early  age  of  16.  He  was  a  stu- 
dent at  the  Polytechnic  Institute  when  the  Franco-German 
War  of  1870  broke  out.  Joffre  was  placed  in  charge  of  a 
large  part  of  the  defense  of  Paris  and  drew  the  plans  of  the 
tortifications  m  the  direction  of  Enghein.  At  the  age  of  19 
he  was  promoted  to  Captaincy  in  the  presence  of  Marshal 
MacMahon  and  his  whole  staff. 

Marshal  Joffre  traveled  much  and  spent  a  great  many 
years  fighting  France's  colonial  wars.  He  served  in  the 
Formosa  campaign  of  1885;  constructed  a  chain  of  forts  at 
Tonkm,  _  Cochin-China;  was  decorated  for  distinguished 
bravery  m  leadmg  his  troops  in  action  there  in  the  eighties- 
was  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Engineering  Corps  at  Hanoi,  and 
midertook  the  building  of  a  raih-oad  from  Senegal  to  the  Nie-er 
River  in  1892.  ^ 

Joffre  fought  through  the  Dahomey  Campaig-n  in  1893; 

3^ 


THE  WAR^S  WHO'S  WHO.  345 

saved  the  day  for  the  French  in  a  briUiant  rear-guard  action 
and  entered  Timbuctoo  as  a  conqueror.  Later  he  proceeded 
to  Madagascar,  where  he  constructed  fortifications  and  organ- 
ized a  naval  station. 

Recalled  to  France,  General  Joffre  became  a  Professor 
in  the  War  College  and  obtained  his  stars  in  1901.  He  later 
entered  the  Engineering  Department  of  the  War  Ministry; 
then  became  Mihtary  Governor  of  Lille.  Later  he  was  pro- 
moted to  be  a  Division  Commander  in  Paris  and  then  com- 
mander of  the  Second  Army  Corps  at  Amiens.  He  gained 
the  honor  in  1911  of  a  unanimous  vote  of  the  Superior  Council 
of  War  making  him  Commander  of  all  the  military  forces  of 

France. 

A  FAMOUS  WAR  RECORD* 

His  record  in  the  World  War  is  well  known.  Every  one 
has  read  of  his  masterly  conduct  of  the  retreat  from  the 
Belgian  border;  of  his  work  in  regrouping  the  shattered  and 
retiring  French  forces;  of  his  ringing  appeal  to  the  men  to 
strike  back  at  the  moment  he  had  determined  upon.  At  the 
Marne  he  saved  France  and  perhaps  the  world. 

Joffre  is  unsympathetic  and  grim  when  at  work.  He  has 
no  patience  for  anything  but  the  highest  efficiency.  At  a 
single  stroke  he  cashiered  a  score  of  Generals  who  did  not 
measure  up  to  his  standards.  He  is  a  master  builder,  organ- 
izer and  strategist.  Though  rather  taciturn  he  is  loved  both 
by  the  officers  and  poilus.  Among  the  latter  he  became  known 
as  "Papa"  Joffre. 

He  showed  by  his  appointments  and  acts  that  a  new 
inspii-ation  ^--^  an  inspiration  of  patriotism -— controlled  the 
Republic.  Joffre's  accession  to  supreme  command  symbolized 
that  France  had  experienced  a  new  birth,  that  the  army  was 
well  organized  and  that  ths  man  who  for  three  years  had  been 
silently  performing  the  regeneration  of  the  land  forces  had 
rightly  been  placed  over  the  forces  he  had  reformed. 


346  THE  WAE'S  WHO'S  WHO. 

ALnost  unknown  to  the  masses,  Joffre  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  French  troops  in  the  summer  of  1914.  Amone 
his  associates  he  was  known  as  an  authority  on  aeroplanes, 
automobiles,  telegraphs  and  the  other  details  of  modern  war- 
fare. Above  everything  else  he  stood  for  efficiency  and  pre- 
paredness, and  lacked  the  qualities  of  the  French  soldier  of 
literature.  To  be  prepared  for  instant  war  had  been  his  effort 
tor  three  years,  and  when  that  time  came  France  found  her- 
self nearly  as  well  prepared  for  the  conflict  as  was  Germany, 
which  had  prepared  for  twenty-five  years, 

ADJURATION  TO  SCHOOL  CHUMS.' 
One  of  his  few  published  speeches,  made  to  his  old  school 
chums  IS  on  this  theme.  "To  be  prepared  in  om-  days,"  he 
said,  has  a  meaning  which  those  who  prepared  for  and  fought 
the  wars  of  other  days  would  have  great  difficulty  in  under- 
standmg.  It  would  be  a  sad  mistake  to  depend  upon  a  sudden 
burst  of  popular  enthusiasm,  even  though  it  should  surpass 
m  mtensity  that  of  the  volunteers  of  the  Revolution,  if  we  do 
not  fortify  it  by  complete  preparation. 

"To  be  prepared  we  must  assemble  all  the  resources  of  the 
country,  all  the  intelligence  of  her  children,  aU  their  moral 
energy  and  direct  them  toward  a  single  aim— victory.  We  must 
have  organized  everything,  foreseen  everything.  Once  hostil- 
ities have  begun  no  improvisation  will  be  worth  while.  What- 
ever lacks  then  wiU  be  lacking  for  good  and  aU.  And  the 
slightest  lack  of  preparation  wiU  speU  disaster." 

What  Joffre  said  to  his  chums  he  had  done  for  the  French 
army,  and  President  Poincare,  after  the  Battle  of  the  Marne 
summed  up  his  qualities  which  made  it  a  French  victory  iri 
this  message  to  Joffre:  "In  the  conduct  of  our  armies  you 
have  shown  a  spirit  of  organization,  order  and  of  method 
whose  beneficent  effects  have  influenced  every  phase,  from 
strategy  to  tactics;  a  wisdom  cold  and  cautious,  which  has 
always  prepared  for  the  unexpected,  a  powerful  soul  which 


THE  WAR'S  WHO'S  WHO.  347 

nothing  has  shaken,  a  serenity  whose  salutary  example  has 
everywhere  inspired  confidence  and  hope." 

These  words  of  the  President  of  the  French  Republic  are 
an  epitome  of  the  character  and  the  military  record  of  Joffre. 
He  is  representative  of  the  real  France,  not  the  France  of 
Paris  and  scandals.  He  is  of  the  peasantry,  and  he  and  his 
kind,  men  of  character,  brought  about  the  glorious  France  of 

the  war. 

Among  those  who  accompanied  Joffre  on  his  visit  to  the 
United  States  was  Rene  Viviani,  ex-Premier  of  France  and 
Minister  of  Justice.  He  was  bom  in  Algeria  in  1862,  his 
family  being  Corsican,  and  originally  of  Italian  blood. 

VIVIANI  A  SOCIALIST  LEADER. 

M.  Viviani  became  a  lawyer  in  Paris  and  built  up  a  large 
practice.  In  1893  he  entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  as  a 
Socialist.  Together  with  Briand,  Jaures  and  Millerand  he 
was  long  a  leader  of  the  parliamentary  delegation  of  Social- 
ists. On  June  1,  1914,  one  month  before  the  outbreak  of  the 
war,  M.  Viviani  became  Prime  Minister.  He  showed  himself 
a  briUiant  leader  and  tireless  worker.  His  speeches  embodying 
the  spirit  of  fighting  France  were  read  and  admired  the  world 
over.  Many  persons  consider  Rene  Viviani  France's  greatest 
orator.     Volumes  of  his  speeches  have  had  a  wide  sale. 

M.  Viviani  was  succeeded  in  the  Premiership  by  M. 
Briand,  and  recently  he  became  Minister  of  Justice  in  the 
Ribot  Cabinet.  He  is  a  man  of  great  culture.  Though  an 
excellent  Latin  and  Greek  scholar,  he  speaks  no  English. 
Rene  Viviani  has  had  some  experience  as  a  newspaper  man, 
as  a  special  writer  and  as  managing  editor  of  the  Petite 
Republique.  His  younger  son,  aged  22,  was  killed  in  the 
war.     His  older  son  has  been  wounded  but  is  back  at  the  front. 

Another  member  of  the  French  mission  was  M.  de  Hovel- 
acque,  the  French  Inspector  General  of  Public  Instruction. 


348  THE  WAR'S  WHO'S  WHO. 

He  is  well  known  in  the  United  States  because  of  his  marriage 
to  Miss  Josephine  Higgins,  of  New  York  State. 

The  Right  Honorable  Arthur  Balfour,  ex-Premier  of 
England,  who  came  to  America  to  join  in  the  conferences  at 
which  the  policies  for  carrying  the  war  were  outlined  after 
America  became  an  Ally,  is  described  as  one  of  the  most  intel- 
lectual statesmen  in  England,  and  one  who,  although  he  won 
all  the  honors  his  country  could  give  him,  never  realized  his 
own  possibilities.  At  sixty-nine,  at  the  height  of  his  mental 
development,  he  occupies  a  place  in  the  English  cabinet,  a 
place  which  was  given  him  because  of  his  great  hold  upon  the 
autocracy  of  England. 

BALFOUR'S  INTELLECTUAL  ABILITY. 
As  the  Premier  of  England,  as  Secretary  of  Ireland  and 
as  the  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons  Mr.  Balfour  displayed 
great  intellectual  agility,  but  at  no  time  was  credited  with 
having  displayed  the  industry  which  spurred  on  such  men  as 
Lloyd  George  to  success.  He  is  of  the  aristocracy  and  his 
position  in  English  politics  ca,me  to  him  as  the  nephew  of  Lord 
Salisbury. 

He  was  born  in  1848  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Cam- 
bridge and  entered  the  House  of  Commons  at  the  age  of  26. 
Mr.  Balfour  was  known  in  his  early  years  as  a  philosophically 
and  religiously  inclined  young  man,  and  it  occasioned  some 
surprise  when  he  followed  the  traditions  of  his  family  by  enter- 
ing  politics. 

Some  years  after  taking  his  seat  he  joined  what  was 
known  as  the  Fourth  Party,  a  conservative  rebel  faction,  con- 
sisting of  three  members.  Lord  Randolph  Churchill,  Sir  Henry 
Drummond  Wolff  and  Sir  John  Gorst.  This  group  consti- 
tuted a  sort  of  mugwump  element  that  voted  independently 
on  every  party  question  and  that  tried  to  rouse  the  Conserva- 
tives from  their  party  prejudices  and  narrow  leanings. 

To   Mr.   Balfour  belonged   the  distinguished   honor  o£ 


THE  WAR'S  WHO'S  WHO.  349 

attending  the  BerHn  Conference  of  1878  as  private  secretary 
to  Lord  Salisbuiy.  In  1885  he  became  President  of  the  Local 
Government  Board.  The  Conservatives  were  thrown  out  of 
power  for  a  short  time  at  this  juncture,  but  when  they  were 
restored  in  1886  Balfour  became  Secretary  for  Scotland. 
Shortly  after  he  was  promoted  to  be  Chief  Secretary  for; 
rTfTtploTiQ 

Despite  his  gentle  manners  and  quiet  ways,  the  new  Chief 
Secretary  ruled  the  then  disturbed  Ireland  with  an  iron  hand. 
He  was  known  as  ^^Bloody  Balfour"  by  the  Irish  agitators 
until  he  began  to  show  his  milder  ways  upon  the  restoration  of 
peace.  He  remained  in  Ireland  until  1891.  He  had  endured 
abuse  and  faced  threats  and  had  come  away  triumphant.  From 
Ireland  Mr.  Balfour  went  to  England  as  First  Lord  of  the 

Treasury. 

Arthur  James  Balfour  showed  his  friendship  for  the 

United  States  when,  in  1897,  as  Actmg  Secretary  for  Foreign 

Affairs,  he  refused  to  give  England's  consent  to  a  continental 

proposal  that  Spain  be  permitted  to  govern  Cuba  as  she  chose. 

LIBERALS  COME  INTO  POWER. 

When  Lord  Sahsbury  died  in  1902  Mr.  Balfour  succeeded 
him  as  Prime  Minister.  He  remained  in  that  office  until  1905, 
when  the  Liberals  came  into  power.  In  the  coalition  Ministry 
formed  since  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War,  he  was  nomi- 
nated First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  He  showed  remarkable 
abihty  in  this  office.  Upon  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Asquith's 
Cabinet,  Mr.  Balfour  became  Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs. 
He  is  an  enthusiastic  sportsman  and  has  written  a  book  on  golf. 

The  other  English  envoys  who  accompanied  Mr.  Balfour 
to  Washington  were  Rear  Admiral  Sir  Dudley  Rawson 
Stratford  de  Chair,  and  Lord  Walter  Cunhffe,  Governor  of 
the  Bank  of  England. 

Rear  Admiral  de  Chair  was  born  August  30,  1864.  He 
entered  the  Royal  N^vy  at  the  age  of  14,  and  received  his 


350  THE  WAE'S  WHO^S  WHO. 

early  training  aboard  His  Majesty's  Ship  Britannia.  He 
served  in  the  Egyptian  war  and  was  naval  attache  at  Washing- 
ton in  1902. 

Admiral  de  Chair  commanded  the  Bacchante,  Cochrane 
and  Colossus  successively  in  the  years  between  1905  and  1912. 
From  1912  to  1914  he  acted  as  Assistant  Controller  of  the 
Navy  and  subsequently  he  was  the  Naval  Secretary  to  the 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty.     At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he 
became  Admiral  of  the  training  services  and  of  the  Tenth 
Cruiser  Squadron.      Admiral  de  Chair  is  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Victorian  Order  and  a  Companion  of  the  Bath. 
LORD  WALTER  CUNLIFFE. 
Lord  Walter  Cunliife,  Governor  of  the  Bank  of  England, 
is  52  years  old.     He  received  his  education  at  Harrow  and 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  from  which  he  graduated  with 
the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts.     He  is  a  Lieutenant  of  the  City 
of  London. 

Lord  Cunhife  has  been  active  in  the  banking  field  for 
many  years  and  is  a  member  of  the  firm  of  Cunhife  Brothers. 
He  is  a  Director  of  the  North  Eastern  Railway  Company  and 
has  been  a  Director  of  the  Bank  of  England  since  1895.  He 
became  Deputy  Governor  of  the  bank  in  1911  and  has  been 
Governor  since  1913,  Lord  Cunhffe  is  the  first  Governor 
of  the  Bank  of  England  to  receive  the  honor  of  re-election 
after  serving  his  term  of  two  years.  In  1914  he  was  created 
the  Fu'st  Baron  of  Headley. 

Among  the  dominating  characters  of  the  war  and  upon 
whose  judgment  and  ability  the  destinies  of  France  and  the 
Alhes  depended  for  a  long  period  is  General  Robert  Nivelle, 
Commander  of  the  French  armies,  and  who  succeeded  General 
Joffre.  General  Nivelle  is  a  man  of  silence;  he  speaks  little. 
General  Nivelle  is  four  years  younger  than  Joffre. 

As  a  boy  of  fourteen  he  could  not  take  part  as  did  Joffre 
and  Gallieni  and  Pau  and  Kitchener  also,  in  the  tragical  war 


THE  WAR^S  WHO'S  WHO.  351 

of  1870.  Joffre  studied  at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  in  Paris ; 
Gallieni,  at  Saint  Cyr,  without  the  walls;  Nivelle  studied  at 
both;  he  may  claim  to  belong  to  all  arms,  artillery,  infantry — 
even  cavalry.  And,  in  his  youth,  he  was  not  only  a  magnificent 
all-round  athlete,  as  indeed  he  still  is,  but  also  a  headlong  rider 
of  steeplechases,  in  which,  had  he  been  fated  to  break  his  neck, 
his  neck  would  infallibly  have  been  broken.  This  is  a  trait 
he  shares  with  General  Brussiloff,  and,  like  the  great  Russian 
General,  he  was  famous  for  the  skill  with  which  he  tamed  and 
trained  cavalry  mounts. 

SERVES  AS  JUNIOR  OFFICER. 

As  a  junior  officer  Nivelle  saw  service  in  the  French 
General  Staff;  his  part  in  the  expedition  to  China  we  have 
recorded;  he  also  served  In  Northern  Africa.  So  that,  like 
Joffre,  Gallieni,  Lyautey,  Roques  and  so  many  leaders  of 
French  armies,  Nivelle  gained  an  Invaluable  element  of  his 
training  in  the  out-of-the-way  corners  of  France's  vast  col- 
onial empire,  which  has  outposts  in  every  continent  and  meas- 
ures nearly  five  million  square  miles. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  Nivelle,  with  the  rank 
of  Colonel,  commanded  the  Fifth  Regiment  of  Artillery,  which 
is  the  artillery  element  of  the  Seventh  Army  Corps,  the  corps 
of  Besancon  and  the  old  Franche-Comite,  under  the  Jura 
Mountains,  at  the  corner  of  Switzerland  and  Alsace. 

It  was,  in  fact,  in  the  section  of  Alsace  invaded  and  re- 
taken by  the  French  army  of  General  Pau — who  lost  an  arm 
in  Alsace  ia  the  war  of  1870 — that  Nivelle  struck  the  first  of 
many  hard  blows  which  made  him  Field  Commander  of  the 
splendid  army  of  France,  He  directed  the  guns  of  his  Fifth 
Regiment  with  such  deadly  accuracy  against  a  group  of  Ger- 
man guns  that  he  first  scattered  their  gunners  In  flight  and  put 
them  out  of  action,  and  then  led  them  off  in  triumph,  twenty- 
four  guns  In  all,  the  first  great  trophy  won  by  the  arms  of 
France, 


352  THE  WAR'S  WHO'S  WHO. 

In  the  battle  of  the  Ourcq,  fought  with  superb  tenacity 
and  dash  by  Manouiy  and  his  men,  the  first  decisive  blow  of 
the  great  battle,  the  first  definite  victory,  was  gained;  General 
von  Kluck's  right  wing  was  smashed  in  and  out-flanked,  with 
the  result  that  the  whole  German  hne  was  dislocated  and  sent 

hurtling  backward. 

In  that  battle  and  victory  Colonel  Nivelle,  as  he  then  was, 
had  his  part;  but  it  was  on  the  Aisne,  a  few  days  later,  that  a 
strikingly  brilKant  act  brought  him  into  especial  prominence. 
The  Seventh  Corps  was  attacked  by  exceedingly  strong  enemy 
forces  and  forced  backward  over  the  Aisne.  Colonel  Nivelle, 
commanding  its  artiUery,  saw  his  opportunity,  and,  himselt 
leading  on  horseback,  brought  his  batteries  out  into  the  open, 
right  between  the  retreating  Seventh  Corps  and  the  s.rong 
German  forces  that  were  pursuing  them,  already  sure  ot 

VIC  ory.  ^(^QjjY  TURNED  TO  SLAUGHTER. 

With  that  cahn  serenity  which  is  his  donunant  character- 
istic in  action,  he  let  the  Germans  come  close  up  to  his  guns  in 
serried  masses.  Then  he  opened  fire,  at  short  range  wih 
deadly  precision,  so  that  the  expected  victory  was  turned  into 
a  slaughter.  Th.  broken  German  regiments,  fleeing  to  the 
woods  beside  the  Aisne  for  safety  ran  -P- ^^^^f^;^"^^^^^^^ 
the  ralHed  Seventh  Corps,  inspired  to  splendid  valor  by  the 
ma^ificent  action  of  their  artiUery.  Of  6000  Germans  who 
made  that  charge  few  indeed  returned  to  their  trenches^ 

This  was  on  September  16, 1914.     Before  the  New  Year 
the  Artillery  Colonel  had  been  made  a  General  f  B"gade 
andtrjanuary,  1915,  the  new  General  distingmshed  himself 
by  slpbg  2    tremendous  and  unforeseen  German  dnve 
agaSoifsons.    He  was  forthwith  -commended  for  «e 
promotion,  and  on  February  18  was  S^^^'^^'^'j;^^^', 
Division.     Shortly  after  this  be  gained  new  laurels  by  captur 
ing  from  the  Germans  the  Quenevieres  sahent. 


THE  WAR^S  WHO'S  WHO.  ^^3 

This  great  commander  was  the  son  of  Colonel  Nivelle — 
and  an  English  mother,  a  former  Miss  Sparrow,  whose  family 
lived  at  Deal,  on  the  English  Channel.  In  his  married  life 
General  Nivelle  has  been  exceedingly  happy. 

The  dominating  figure  in  the  English  army  when  ifoierica 
entered  the  fray  was  Sir  Douglas  Haig.  He  succeeded  Sir 
Jolm  French. 

Sir  Douglas  Haig  was  born  under  so  favorable  a  star 
that  he  has  long  been  known  as  * 'Lucky"  Haig.  Not  that  he 
has  depended  upon  his  luck  to  push  him  ahead  in  the  army, 
for  his  record  as  a  student  and  a  worker  wholly  disproves  this. 
But  nevertheless  fortune  has  showered  many  favors  upon  him. 
Among  these  favors  the  first  and  by  no  means  the  least  is  his 
very  aristocratic  lineage  and  the  consequent  high  standing  he 
has  had  in  royal  and  influential  circles. 

HAIG'S   FAMILY  TREE. 

Haig's  family  tree  dates  back  at  least  six  centuries  and 
he  comes  of  the  very  flower  of  Scotch  stock.  The  virtues  of 
the  "Haigs  of  Bamersyde"  were  extolled  by  the  poets  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  And  to  discuss  this  feature  of  his  career 
without  giving  due  credit  to  the  position  and  influence  of  his 
wife  would  be  ungallant  as  well  as  unfair.  She  was  the  Hon. 
Dorothy  Vivian,  daughter  of  the  third  Lord  Vivian,  and  maid- 
of -honor  to  Queen  Alexandi^a,  and  the  pair  were  married  in 
Buckingham  Palace. 

He  did  not  enter  the  army  mitil  after  his  graduation  from 
Oxford  and  then  he  took  service  in  the  cavalry,  the  usual  choice 
of  the  English  "gentleman.''  When  twenty-four  years  old,  he 
received  his  commission  as  a  Lieutenant  in  the  Queen's  Own 
Hussars,  one  of  the  ultra-fashiona'ble  regiments.  Six  years 
later  he  was  made  a  Captain  and  then  decided  to  take  a  regular 
military  course  at  the  Staff  College. 

In  1898  he  took  part  in  Kitchener's  campaign  up  the  Nile 
and  in  the  Squdan  as  a  cavalry  officer.    He  was  then  thirty- 


354  THE  WAR'S  WHO'S  WHO. 

seven  years  old.  He  distinguished  himself  in  several  engage- 
ments, was  "mentioned  in  the  dispatches,"  was  awarded  the 
British  medal  and  the  Khedive's  medal  and  was  promoted  to 
Major. 

His  career  in  the  Boer  war,  which  followed  that  in  Egypt, 
was  characterized  by  distinguished  services  and  umnerons 
rapid  promotions.  It  was  during  this  latter  war  that  Haig 
became  attached  to  the  staff  of  Sir  John  French,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  France  and  Flanders.  He  came  out  of  the  war 
in  South  Africa  a  full-fledged  Colonel,  and  with  a  fresh  supply 
of  medals  and  '^mentions."  Then  he  was  sent  to  India  as 
Inspector  General  of  Cavalry. 

DIRECTOR  OF  MILITARY  TRAINING. 

He  remained  in  the  Indian  service  three  years,  and  theiu 
was  given  a  post  at  the  war  office  in  London,  with  the  title  of 
^'Director  of  Military  Training."  He  remained  in  London 
three  years,  when  he  was  sent  to  India  as  Chief  of  the  Staff 
of  the  Indian  Army.  Three  years  later  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land and  was  given  what  was  known  as  the  *'Aldershot  Com- 
mand," which,  in  fact,  was  the  command  of  the  real  active 
British  army.  He  had  this  post  when  the  war  broke.  His 
assignment  as  Commander  of  the  First  Army  Corps  under 
Sir  John  French  soon  followed. 

The  man,  who  next  to  the  Kaiser  had  more  to  do  with 
Germany's  plans  for  world  domination,  is  Dr.  Theobold  von 
Bethmann-HoUweg,  Imperial  Chancellor  of  Germany. 

The  elevation  of  HoUweg  to  the  Chancellorship  came  when 
Prince  Bulow  stood  in  the  way  of  complete  domination  of 
Germany's  policies  by  the  militarists,  headed  by  the  Kaiser. 
Prince  Bulow  was  dismissed  and  Bethmann-Hollweg  became 
Chancellor  in  1909.  From  that  time  on  he  dedicated  his  life 
to  the  achievement  of  a  single  aim — ^the  completion  of  Ger- 
many's plans  of  aggression. 

Bethmann-Hollweg  comes  from  an  old  Prussian  family^ 


THE  WAR'S  WHO'S  WHO.  355 

ennobled  in  1840.     He  was  born  about  1855  and  was  a  student 
with  the  Kaiser  at  the  University  of  Bonn.    He  studied  law 
at  Gottingen,  Strassburg  and  Berlin,  and  for  several  years 
followed  the  law  and  was  appointed  a  judge  at  Potsdam. 
APPOINTED  PRUSSIAN  HOME  SECRETARY. 

In  1905  he  was  appointed  Prussian  Home  Secretary,  and 
it  was  then  that  his  name  first  became  familiar  to  the  man  in 
the  street  in  Berlin.  Shortly  afterward  he  was  appointed 
Assistant  Chancellor  of  Prince  Bulow,  who  was  then  Chan- 
cellor. 

It  was  during  his  service  as  Home  Secretary  that  Beth- 
mann-HoUweg  became  largely  converted  to  all  that  the  most 
advanced  Prussian  militarism  stood  for.  Ultimately  be  became 
a  far  more  ardent  Pan-German  even  than  Prince  Bulow.  In 
a  speech  at  Munich  in  1908  he  declared  that  though  Germany 
was  then  happily  free  of  all  immediate  anxiety  so  far  as  her 
foreign  relations  were  concerned,  her  present  and  future  posi- 
tion as  a  great  Power  must  ultimately  rest  on  her  strong  arn\ 
and  though  the  strength  of  her  arm  was  greater  than  it  ever 
had  been  it  must  grow  yet  stronger. 

It  was  a  speech  after  the  Kaiser's  own  heart — provocative 
and  boasting  to  a  degree.  It  had,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  said, 
been  prepared  by  the  Emperor,  and  was  delivered  by  the 
Kaiser's  order  for  the  special  benefit  of  Prince  Bulow,  who 
had  at  that  time  fallen  out  of  favor  with  the  Emperor. 

Grand  Admiral  Von  Tirpitz  is  said  to  be  the  man  who 
made  the  German  navy.  Having  won  the  recognition  of  the 
Kaiser  in  1894  he  was  promoted  to  Chief  of  Staff  in  the  Ger- 
man navy,  and  was  placed  in  command  of  Kiel.  He  was  made 
Secretary  of  State  in  1898  and  inmiediately  began  the  building 
up  of  the  navy.  New  and  modern  methods  of  engineering 
were  developed  and  finally  he  made  such  an  impression  with 
the  Kaiser  that  he  was  ennobled.  Von  Tirpitz  was  the  prin- 
cipal advocate  of  Germany's  plans  during  a  decade  for  having 


356  THE  WAR'S  WHO'S  WHO. 

the  navy  powerful  enough  to  equal  the  combined  powers  of 
any  three  great  naval  powers. 

Sir  John  Jellicoe,  Vice  Admiral  and  Commander-in-Chief 
of  the  British  Naval  Home  Fleet  had  served  more  than  forty 
years  in  the  navy  when  the  war  broke  out.  He  was  a  Lieuten- 
ant at  the  bombardment  of  Alexandria  and  was  a  member  of 
the  Naval  Brigade  which  participated  in  the  battle  of  Tel-el- 
Kebir,  for  activity  in  which  he  was  presented  with  the  Khe- 
dive's Bronze  Star  for  gallant  service.  He  was  in  command 
of  the  naval  brigade  which  went  to  phina  in  1898  to  help  sub- 
due the  Boxers  and  was  shot  at  Teitsang,  where  he  was  deco- 
rated by  the  German  Emperor,  who  conferred  upon  him  the 
Order  of  the  Red  Eagle.  He  was  Rear- Admiral  of  the  Atlan- 
tic Fleet  in  1907-08^  and  Commander  of  the  Second  Home 
Squadron  in  1911-12.  To  Admiral  Jellicoe  is  given  credit  for 
having  developed  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  among  the  gun- 
ners in  the  English  navy. 

ADMIRAL  HUGO  POHL. 

Admiral  Hugo  Pohl,  of  the  German  navy,  was  born  at 
Breslau  in  1855.  He  became  a  Lieutenant  in  the  Imperial 
German  navy  when  but  21  years  of  age.  He  gained  rapid 
promotion,  and  within  a  few  years  was  Commodore  in  charge 
of  the  scouting  ships.  He  had  charge  of  setting  up  the  nowi 
famous  German  naval  stations  from  Kiel  to  Sonderberg  in 
Schleswig  in  1908  and  was  afterwards  made  Vice  Admiral. 
He  wears  the  medal  of  the  Order  of  the  Crown,  bestowed  upon 
him  by  the  Kaiser  for  admirable  service. 

One  of  the  men  whose  names  will  be  forever  linked  with 
the  war,  particularly  with  relation  to  the  adoption  of  new 
methods  of  warfare,  is  that  of  Count  Zeppelin,  who  died  on 
March  8,  1917,  and  who  was  the  father  of  the  Zeppelin  or 
dirigible  balloon.  The  idea  for  the  big  airship  did  not  origi- 
nate with  Count  Zeppelin,  but  with  David  Schwartz,  a  young 
[Austrian,  who  built  his  first  dirigible  in  1893.     He  tried  to 


THE  WAB'S  WHCyS  WHO.  357 

arouse  interest  in  his  aircraft  in  Russia,  but  failed  and  finally 
went  to  Berlin,  where  he  interested  the  then  Baron  Zeppelin. 
A  balloon  was  made,  but  Schwartz  fell  ill  and  died.  Zeppelin 
was  later  accused  of  attempting  to  steal  the  young  Austrian's 
patents,  and  the  courts  made  an  award  to  Schwartz's  widow  of 
$18,000. 

Count  Zeppelin's  first  airship  came  out  about  1898.  It 
was  300  feet  long  and  had  an  aluminum  frame.  Short  cruises 
were  made  in  1899  and  1900,  and  the  craft  maintained  a  speed 
of  about  sixteen  miles  an  hour.  A  second  airship  was  com- 
pleted in  1905,  and  later  a  third  aircraft  was  finished.  This 
dirigible  made  a  cruise  of  200  miles  at  an  average  speed  of 
twenty  miles.  The  success  led  Count  Zeppelin  to  make  his 
most  ambitious  attempt  and  he  tried  to  cross  the  Alps  carrying 
sixteen  passengers. 

IN  THE  AIR  THIRTY-SEVEN  HOURS. 
He  succeeded  and  passing  through  hailstorms,  crossing 
eddies  and  encountering  cross-currents  he  traveled  270  miles 
at  an  average  speed  of  twenty-two  miles  an  hour.  Subse- 
quently he  made  a  flight  to  England,  remaining  in  the  air 
thirty-seven  hours.  Fate  played  him  false,  however,  in  many 
of  his  ventures  and  he  returned  home  after  making  remarkable 
voyages,  only  to  have  his  craft  destroyed  at  its  very  landing 
place. 

The  German  Government  and  the  Kaiser  joined  in  giving 
him  a  grant  of  money  to  carry  on  his  work,  and  a  plant  was 
built  at  Frederichshafen.  But  while  Count  Zeppelin's  name 
will  be  forever  identified  with  aeronautics  the  successes  which 
he  attained  were  not  enduring,  for  the  Zeppelins  proved  not 
entirely  satisfactory  in  military  warfare  in  competition  with 
the  aeroplane. 

In  the  counsels  of  Greece  the  outstanding  figure  from  the 
beginning  of  the  war  was  Eleutherois  Venizelos.  He  is 
credited  with  being  responsible  for  the  national  revival  in 


358  THE  WAR'S  WHO'S  WHO. 

Greece  when  the  country  seemed  doomed  after  the  Turkish 
war  of  1897.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  country  in  the  move- 
ment to  join  the  Allies  in  the  fight  against  German  domination 
and  he  swayed  the  nation  and  held  them  as  few  men  have.  He 
was  born  in  the  Island  of  Crete  in  1864,  and  according  to  tra- 
dition, his  family  descended  from  the  medieval  Dukes  of 
Athens.  He  was  educated  in  Greece  and  Switzerland  and 
became  active  in  Cretan  politics,  and  won  recognition  as  the 
strong  man  of  the  "Great  Greek  Island." 

TRANSFORMS  A  NATION. 

In  less  than  three  years  after  the  distress  in  which  the 
country  found  itself  in  1909  he  transformed  the  nation  into 
one  of  solidarity.  There  had  been  meaningless  squabbles  of 
corrupt  politicians  and  a  sordid  struggle  for  preferment.  The 
army  was  degenerating  and  the  popular  fury  became  so  great 
that  there  was  an  uprising  of  the  army,  which  under  the  title 
of  the  "Military  League,"  ousted  the  Government  and  took 
control  of  the  country.  ^  The  heads  of  the  League  brought 
forward  Venizelos.  The  League  dissolved  and  reforms  were 
instituted  which  started  the  country  on  a  new  path,  and  when 
the  Balkan  war  broke  in  1912  Greece  made  a  record  and 
emerged  in  many  respects  the  leader  of  the  Balkan  states. 

Sir  John  French  is  one  of  the  Enghsh  commanders  who 
have  rendered  yeoman  service  in  the  war.  He  is  one  of  the 
most  striking  military  figures  in  England.  He  has  seen  serv- 
ice in  India,  Africa  and  Canada,  and  was  one  of  the  uniformly 
successful  conmianders  in  the  Boer  war.  At  the  Siege  of  Kim- 
berly  he  was  shut  up  in  Ladysmith  with  the  Boer  lines  drawing 
closer.  He  managed  to  secrete  himself  under  the  seat  of  a 
train  on  which  women  were  being  carried  to  safety.  Outside 
the  lines  he  made  his  way  to  the  Cape,  where  he  was  put  in 
charge  of  cavalry  and  in  a  terrific  drive  he  swept  through  the 
Free  State  and  reached  Ladysmith  in  time  to  save  the  day. 

He  originally  entered  the  navy,  but  remained  for  a  short 


THE  WAR'S  WHO^S  WHO.  359 

Hme.  He  commanded  the  19th  Hussars  from  1889  to  1903 
and  then  rose  steadily  in  rank  until  he  was  made  General 
Inspector  of  the  Forces  and  finally  Field  Marshal  in  1903. 

There  should  be  no  discrimination  in  naming  those  who 
have  represented  America  in  the  country's  activities  at  war, 
but  because  they  came  into  the  world's  line  of  vision  by  being 
sent  abroad  for  service  there  are  some  American  commanders 
whose  names  will  ever  be  remembered. 

Vice-Admiral  Wilham  S.  Sims  is  one  of  these.  He  is 
a  Pennsylvanian  who  was  born  in  Canada.  His  father  was 
A.  W.  Sims,  of  Philadelphia,  who  married  a  Canadian  and 
lived  at  Port  Hope,  where  Admiral  Sims  first  saw  the  hght 
of  day.  He  went  to  Aimapolis  when  he  was  17  years  of  age 
and  was  graduated  in  1880.  After  this  he  secured  a  year's 
leave  of  absence  and  went  to  France,  where  he  studied  French. 
Subsequently  he  was  assigned  to  the  Tennessee,  the  flagship 
of  the  North  Atlantic  Squadron  and  passed  tlirough  all  grades 
of  ships.  He  received  promotion  to  a  Lieutenancy  when  he 
was  about  30  years  of  age.  For  a  time  he  was  in  charge  of 
the  Schoolship  Saratoga,  and  later  was  located  at  Charleston 
IS'avy  Yard,  and  also  with  the  receiving  ship  at  the  League 
Island  Navy  Yard,  Philadelphia.  After  this  he  went  to  Paris 
as  Naval  Attache  at  the  American  Embassy.  He  was  simi- 
larly Attache  at  the  American  Embassy  at  St.  Petersburg. 

Admiral  Sims  was  relieved  of  his  European  assignment 
in  1900  and  joined  the  Asiatic  fleet,  and  while  abroad  studied 
the  methods  of  British  gunnery.  When  he  returned  to 
America  later  he  inaugurated  reforms  which  increased  the 
efficiency  of  the  gunnery  in  the  service  100  per  cent.  His 
successful  efforts  led  to  his  appointment  as  Naval  Aide  to 
President  Roosevelt.  He  made  a  report  on  the  engagement 
between  the  British  and  German  naval  fleets  at  Jutland  which 
was  startling,  and  declared  that  the  British  battle  cruisers  had 
protected  Great  Britain  from  the  invasion  of  the  enemy. 


860  THE  WAR'S  WHO'S  WHO. 

When  he  reached  the  European  waters  in  command  of 
the  United  States  naval  forces,  with  a  destroyer  flotilla,  and 
the  British  officers  who  greeted  him  asked  when  the  flotilla 
would  be  ready  to  assist  in  chasing  the  submarine  and  protect- 
ing shipping,  Admiral  Sims  created  a  surprise  by  tersely 
replying:  "We  can  start  at  once."  And  he  did.  Admiral 
Sims  married  Miss  Anne  Hitchcock,  daughter  of  Former 
Secretary  of  the  Interior.     The  couple  have  five  children. 

Major  General  John  J.  Pershing,  of  the  United  States 
Army,  Commander  of  the  forces  in  France  and  Belgium,  is 
one  of  the  most  picturesque  figures  in  American  military 
circles.  **Black  Jack"  Pershing  is  what  the  officers  call  him, 
because  he  was  for  a  long  time  commander  of  the  famous 
Tenth  Cavalry  of  Negroes,  which  he  whipped  into  shape  as 
Drillmaster,  and  which  saved  the  Rough  Riders  from  a  great 
deal  of  difficulty  at  San  Juan  Hill  in  the  Spanish- American 
War.  He  was  also  at  the  battle  of  El  Caney  where  he  was 
given  credit  for  being  one  of  the  most  composed  men  in  action 
that  ever  graced  a  battlefield.  He  served  with  signal  results 
ip  the  campaign  against  the  little  "brown"  men  in  the  Philip- 
pines; was  in  charge  of  the  expedition  which  chased  Villa  into 
Mexico. 

General  Pershing  was  born  in  1864  In  Laclede,  Missouri, 
and  is  tall,  wiry  and  strong.  Every  inch  of  his  six  feet  is  of 
fighting  material.  He  is  a  man  of  action  and  has  a  penchant 
for  utilizing  the  services  of  young  men  rather  than  staid  old 
officers  of  experience.  Pershing  is  a  real  military  man,  and 
has  been  notably  absent  from  such  things  as  banquets  and  other 
functions  where  by  talking  he  might  get  into  the  limelight. 
It  is  true  that  he  was  jumped  over  the  heads  of  a  number  of 
officers  by  President  Roosevelt,  but  he  has  carved  his  way  by 
his  own  efforts,  and  no  man  could  have  more  fittingly  been 
sent  to  take  charge  of  the  American  forces  abroad  than  "Jack" 
Pershing. 


mAPTEB  XX. 
CHEMISTRY  m  THE  WAR 

Substitutes  foe  Cotton— Niteates  Peoduced  feom  Aib— Yeast  a  Real  Sub- 
stitute roR  Beef— Seaweed  Made  to  Give  up  Potash— A  Gangrene  Pee- 
VENTiTVE— Soda  IVIade  Out  of  Salt  Watee—Ameeica  Chemically  Indepen- 
dent. 

IT  IS  when  men  are  put  to  the  test  that  they  develop  initia- 
tive and  are  inspired  to  great  things.  In  the  stress  of 
circumstances  there  were  created  through  and  in  the  great 
war  many  unusual  devices  and  much  that  will  endure  for  the 
benefit  of  mankind  in  the  future.  It  is  probable  that  the 
advancements  made  in  many  lines  would  not  have  been  attained 
in  years  but  for  the  necessity  which  demanded  the  exertion 
of  men's  ingenuity,  and  in  no  field  was  this  advancement 
greater  than  in  that  of  chemistry. 

Any  struggle  between  men  is,  in  the  last  analysis,  a  battle 
of  wits,  but  it  remained  for  those  planning  and  scheming  to 
defeat  their  fellow  men  or  protect  themselves  in  the  world 
conflict  to  make  for  the  first  time  in  history  the  fullest  use  of 
the  chemist's  knowledge.     Largely  the  successes  of  the  war 
have  been  due  to  the  studies  and  activities  of  the  chemists, 
working  in  their  laboratories  far  from  the  actual  field  of  strife. 
Not  only  has  then-  knowledge  been  turned  to  the  creation 
of  tremendously  destructive  explosives,  the  like  of  which  have 
never  before  been  known  in  warfare,  but  the  same  brains  which 
have  been  utilized  to  assist  man  in  his  death-dealing  crusades 
have  been  called  upon  to  thwart  the  efforts  of  the  warring 
humans  and  save  the  lives  of  those  compelled  to  face  the  withe^ 
ing  fire  of  cannon,  the  flaming  grenade  and  the  asphyxiating 
gas  bomb. 

In  the  food  crisis  which  confronted  the  nations,  chemists 
drew  from  the  very  air  and  the  waters  of  the  river  and  sea, 

36i 


362  CHEMISTKY  IN  THE  WAR. 

gases  and  salts  to  take  the  place  of  those  which  became  limited 
in  their  supply  because  of  the  demands  of  the  belligerents. 

The  chemist  is  one  of  those  who  fights  the  battles  at  home. 
The  resisting  steel,  the  penetrating  shell,  the  poisonous  gas,  the 
power-producing  oil,  the  powerful  explosive — all  these  are  his 
contributions  to  the  war's  equipment,  but  he  also  is  the  magician 
who  waves  the  wand  and  out  of  the  apparently  useless  weeds 
and  vegetable  matter  produces  edibles..  He  turns  waste  prod- 
ucts into  valuable  chemicals  or  extracts  needed  chemicals  from 
by-products. 

GERMANY'S  GREAT  PRIVATION. 

Germany,  deprived  of  many  imports  by  the  sea  power  of 
England,  first  transformed  herself  into  a,  self-supporting 
nation  through  the  agency  of  the  chemist.  Substitutes  had 
to  be  provided  for  food  products  which  the  Germans  could 
not  get,  and  it  is  said  that  the  ability  of  the  Kaiser  and  his 
henchmen  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  the  Allied  forces  was 
due  as  much  to  the  service  rendered  by  the  chemists  as  by  the 
army  and  navy. 

Nbt  only  were!  artificial  foodstuffs  manufactured,  but 
natural  food  products  previously  neglected  were  prepared  for 
use.  What  had  been  regarded  as  useless  weeds  were  found  to 
possess  food  value.  A  dozen  wild-growing  plants  were  found 
that  might  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  spinach,  while  half  a 
dozen  others  were  shown  to  be  good  substitutes  for  salads. 
Starches  were  obtained  from  roots,  and  cheap  grades  of  oils 
and  fatty  wastes  of  all  sorts  were  turned  into  edibles. 

Up  until  the  advent  of  the  present  war  cotton  formed  the 
base  of  most  of  the  so-called  propellant  explosives  used  in 
advanced  warfare.  Such  terrible  explosives  as  trinitrotoluene 
occasionally  mentioned  in  the  published  war  reports,  as  well  as 
many  others,  have  as  the  principal  agent  of  destructive  force 
guncotton,  which  is  ordinary  raw  cotton  or  cellulose  treated 
with  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid,  though  there  are,  of  course,  other 


CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR.  363 

chemicals  used  in  compounding  the  various  forms  of  deadly 
explosives, 

jAt  the  same  time  there  are  innumerable  explosives  which 
are  of  a  distinct  class.  Lyddite,  mentioned  occasionally  as 
one  of  the  modern  death-dealing  explosives,  has  for  a  base 
picric  acid.  The  Lyddite  shells  referred  to  occasionally  in 
various  articles  about  the  war  are  shells  in  which  Lyddite  is 
used  as  the  explosive.  The  largest  percentage  of  explosives 
used  in  modern  gimnery  are  those  formed  of  nitrated  cellulose 
*-— guncotton. 

TWO  GREAT  FACTORS. 

Therefore  any  shortage  in  the  supply  of  cotton  and  cellu- 
lose is  a  serious  matter  in  war  time,  for  the  country  which 
has  the  most  plentiful  supply  of  ammunition  is  the  one  that 
has  the  greatest  relative  advantage.  It  was^  for  instance, 
stated  from  Washington  several  times  after  the  war  started 
and  the  United  States  commercial  and  industrial  forces  were 
being  mobilized,  that  America  could  make  enough  almost  imbe- 
lievably  powerful  explosives  to  blow  Germany  off  the  face  of 
the  European  map,  were  it  possible  to  transport  the  dangerous 
materials.  Dozens  of  new  explosive  compounds  were  placed 
before  the  Government  for  consideration  and  in  application 
for  patents.  One  of  the  new  ones,  it  was  said,  was  so  powerful 
that  little  more  than  a  pinch  of  it  exploded  beneath  such  an 
immense  structure  as  the  Woolworth  Building,  New  York, 
[would  destroy  the  entire  edifice. 

The  curtailment  of  the  supply  of  cotton  to  Germany  when 
the  war  started,  because  of  England's  blockade,  and  later  when 
America  entered  the  conflict,  threatened  disaster  to  the  "Fath- 
erland." The  German  chemists  began  working  immediately 
to  supply  substitutes  for  cotton,  to  be  used  both  in  the  manu- 
facture of  explosives  and  fabrics.  They  developed  the 
processes  of  producing  cellulose  from  wood  pulp  to  take  the 
place  of  cotton  for  making  guncotton,  and  certain  forms  of 


364:  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAE. 

wood  fiber  and  paper  were  used  in  the  textile  trades.  WiUow 
bark  was  one  of  the  substances  utilized  to  a  limited  degree  in 
making  fabrics. 

Likewise  synthetic^— or  artificial-— camphor  to  take  the 
place  of  that  secured  from  nature's  own  laboratory— the  cam- 
phor tree — ^was  also  produced  of  necessity,  for  camphor  is  an 
ingredient  largely  used  in  making  smokeless  powder.  Before 
the  war  most  of  the  camphor  was  obtained  from  Japan. 

Compounds — alloyed  steel,  iron  and  aluminum — ^have  also 
been  used  in  the  industrial  world  to  supplant  copper.  In 
America  we  have  been  educated  to  regard  copper  as  the  ideal 
metal  for  conducting  electrical  power,  but  in  Europe  aluminum 
was  used  successfully  in  a  large  way,  even  before  the  war. 
After  the  conflict  started  in  all  of  the  countries  where  there  was 
a  scant  supply  of  copper,  substitutes  were  developed  by  the 
metallurgists  and  chemists. 

POTENCY  OF  MODERN  CHEMISTRY. 

The  acids  and  salts  used  in  powder  making  and  the  crea- 
tion of  explosives  were  also  secured  from  new  places.  Nitric 
acid,  which  is  necessary  to  the  manufacture  of  guncotton,  for 
many  years  was  made  principally  with  saltpeter  and  sulphuric 
acid.  Modern  chemists,  however,  made  it  from  nitrogen  of 
the  very  air  we  breathe,  and  in  Germany  it  was  made  during 
the  war  from  ammonia  and  calcium  cyanamide,  both  of  which 
may  be  obtained  from  the  air. 

Many  such  methods  of  obtaining  acids  were  known  and 
tested  before  the  war,  but  the  processes  had  not  been  perfected 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  them  commercially  profitable. 
However,  the  increased  prices  of  chemicals,  due  to  the  exces- 
sive demands  of  war,  and  the  absolute  necessity  for  producing 
them  inspired  the  chemists  to  get  the  required  results,  and 
Germany  by  the  development  of  these  sources  of  supply  found 
the  acids  necessary  for  her  own  use  in  war,  whether  for  explo- 
sive making  or  medical  purposes. 


CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR.  365 

Great  quantities  of  sugar  are  used  in  making  powder  and 
explosives,  too,  and  when  the  supply  became  limited  the  Ger- 
man diemists  began  producing  in  larger  quantities  the  chem- 
ical substitute — saccharine.  Later  even  this  sweet  was  denied 
the  population  because  the  chemicals  were  needed  for  war 
uses.  So  in  every  line  Germany  found  use  for  everything 
which  its  chemists  and  chemical  laboratories  could  produce. 

The  terrible  gas  and  liquid  fire  bombs  which  the  Germans 
were  first  reported  using  contained  chemical  compounds 
invented  for  the  purpose  by  the  chemists.  Some  of  the  chem- 
icals and  the  gases  produced  when  the  bombs  exploded  were 
so  powerful  that  men  and  animals  in  the  range  of  the  fumes 
were  killed  instantly.  The  effect  was  to  paralyze  them  in  some 
cases  and  it  was  reported  that  many  of  the  soldiers  were  found 
dead  standing  upright  in  the  trenches  or  in  the  attitudes  which 
they  had  assumed  at  the  moment  they  were  overcome. 

BASIC  PRINCIPLE  OF  BOMBS. 

(Nitrous-oxide,  or  chlorine,  in  some  chemical  form  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  base  of  the  bombs,  and  concerning 
the  liquid  fire  it  was  reported  in  connection  with  the  dropping 
of  bombs  on  London  from  a  Zeppelin,  that  some  of  the  bombs 
contained  what  is  chemically  known  as  Thermit,  which  is  a  mix- 
fee  of  aluminum  and  iron  oxide  used  in  brazing  and  welding. 
When  ignited  the  oxygen  is  freed  from  the  iron  and  combines 
with  the  aluminum  with  great  rapidity.  During  the  chemical 
reaction  an  intense  heat  is  produced-=^a  heat  so  great  that  it 
almost  equals  that  of  an  electric  arc. 

So  in  the  world  of  agriculture  and  industry  the  German 
chemists,  recognized  leaders  of  the  world,  actually  made  or 
produced  from  the  air  and  other  misuspected  sources  things 
withou?  which  they  could  not  have  withstood  the  siege  against 
them  for  a  single  year.  In  the  absence  of  concentrated  foods 
for  cattle  and  humans,  the  chemists  produced  absolute  substi- 
tutes.   They  took  the  residue  oi:  waste  from  the  breweries  and 


366  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR. 

extracting  tlie  bitter  hops  taste  from  the  dried  yeast  produced 
a  substitute  for  beef  extract. 

So  also  theyi  secured  ammonium  sulphate  by  a  direct 
combination  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen  in  the  air.  At  the 
same  time  they  utiHzed  other  minerals  than  those  usually  avail- 
able for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  placed  the 
country  on  an  independent  footing. 

But  Germany  was  not  alone  in  its  advancement.  The 
United  States,  which  found  itself  without  quantities  of  dye- 
stuflFs  and  many  other  chemically  produced  things  when  the  war 
came  on,  took  the  lesson  unto  itself  and  is  today  nearer  self- 
supporting  than  it  ever  was  in  the  history  of  the  nation.  The 
Department  of  Agriculture  has  experimented  and  produced 
from  yeast,  vegetable  bouillon  cubes,  which  taste  like  beef 
extract  and  contain  greater  nutriment. 

DOMESTIC  DYE-STUFFS. 

America,  too,  has  extracted  sulphate  of  ammonium  from 
the  air  and  the  dye-stuffs  which  we  could  not  g^t  from  abroad 
are  being  made  at  home.  Two  of  the  things  which  America 
found  lacking  when  war  developed  were  potash  and  acetone, 
both  of  which  are  factors  in  powder  and  explosive  making. 
The  former  is  used  in  the  ordinary  black  gunpowder,  but  the 
latter  is  necessary  in  the  making  of  the  smokeless  powder. 
England  wanted  Cordite,  one  form  of  this  powder  which  the 
British  think  is  the  best  propellant  in  the  world.  It  is  made  of 
guncotton  and  nitroglycerine  and  acetone  is  one  of  the  chem- 
icals required  in  its  manufacture.  England  turned  to  the 
United  States  for  quantities  of  this  explosive  and  also  for  the 
acetone,  but  America  did  not  produce  anywhere  near  enough, 
and  England  wanted  this  country  to  make  something  like 
20,000,000  pounds  of  the  explosive. 

A  number  of  mushroom  chemical  plants  were  developed 
by  the  powder  company  to  produce  the  desired  acetone — one 
very  much  like  a  vinegar  plant  near  Baltimore,  and  another  at 


CHEMISTEY  IN  THE  WAE.  367 

San  Diego,  California,  where  the  munitions  maker's  chemists 
refined  acetone  and  potash  extracted  from  kelp,  or  sea  weed, 
and  besides  supplying  the  powder  and  the  chemicals  which  the 
Engli^  needed  America  developed  a  permanent  industry. 

RELIEVED  BY  AMERICAN  INGENUITY. 

Carbohc  acid,  too,  was  one  of  the  badly  needed  chemicals 
of  the  war,  not  only  for  medical  purposes,  but  also  for  explosive 
making.  Again  the  ingenuity  of  America  asserted  itself  and 
Thomas  A.  Edison  produced  the  plans  for  two  benzol-absorb- 
ing plants  which  were  erected  at  great  steel  works  and  within  a 
few  months  these  plants  were  turning  out  benzol  and  Mr. 
Edison's  carbolic-acid  plant  was  being  supplied  with  the  raw 
material. 

And  then  it  was  believed  that  'America  could  not  make 
dyes  to  take  the  place  of  those  which  came  from  Germany.  All 
the  United  States,  it  was  said,  would  have  to  wear  white  stock- 
ings. The  country  just  could  not  produce  the  dyes  necessary, 
and  the  product  of  the  American  plants  was  inferior.  But 
America  could  make  the  same  dyes.  She  is  making  them. 
Right  now  she  is  making  practically  as  great  a  variety  as 
Germany  even  sent  over  here. 

A  few  miles  outside  of  Philadelphia,  at  Marcus  Hook,  on 
the  busy  Delaware  river  where  the  ships  of  the  world  are 
being  made,  the  Benzol  Products  Company  turns  out  large 
quantities  of  aniline  oil.  The  aniline  oil,  the  essential  basis  of 
aniline  dyes,  is  made  into  tints  as  fair  and  perfect  as  any  the 
wizards  of  Germany  ever  conjured  out  of  their  test  tubes. 

The  tale  about  America's  inability  was  proved  to  be  a 
fable.  The  Marcus  Hook  plant  is  one  of  three  which  sprang 
up  when  the  war  began.  Others  are  the  Schoellkopf  Aniline 
and  Chemical  Works  at  Buffalo  and  a  third  is  the  Becker 
Aniline  and  Chemical  Works  at  Brooklyn.  The  three  are  now 
merged  into  one  great  operating  company  and  Germany  wiU 


368  CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR. 

have  some  difficulty:  in  getting  bacK  her  dye  trade  when  sEcis 
ready  to  again  fight  for  the  world  markets. 

Moreover,  the  world-famous   duPont   Company,  which 
has  made  powder  and  chemicals  for  all  the  nations,  turned  in 
and  purchased  the  Harrison  Chemical  Works  in  1917,  and 
besides  making  "pigments"  has  entered  the  coal  tar  dye 
industry.    The  company  made  an  intensive  study  of  the  dyeing 
industries— cotton,  calico  printing,  wool,  silk,  leather,  paper, 
paints,  printing  inks,  &c.,  and  made  plans  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  each.    The  Harrison  plant  is  but  one  of  the  immense 
group  operated  by  the  duPont  Company  and  it  has  been 
famous  for  the  manufacture  of  white  lead  and  acids. 
A  CHEMICAL  DISCOVERY. 
There  is  in  fact  no  line  in  which  the  chemists  of  America 
did  not  rise  to  the  emergency,,  and  the  "romances  of  the 
industrial"  world  are  not  more  entrancing  than  are  those  of 
the  medical  and  other  fields.    Chemistry,  for  instance,  dis- 
covered an  anti-toxin  for  the  deadly  gangrene,  or  gas  bacillus, 
poisoning  of  the  battlefields.    Jhe  discovery  was  made  by 
research  workers  in  Rockefeller  Institute. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  important  discoveries  in  medical 
research  as  applied  to  war,  having  an  even  greater  bearing 
on  the  treatment  of  war  wounds  than  the  Dakin-Carrel  treat- 
ment of  sluicing  wounds  previously  referred  to.  The  serum 
works  on  the  same  principle  as  the  anti-tetanus  seriun  used 
to  prevent  lockjaw.  The  gangrene  antitoxin  is  injected  to 
prevent  the  development  of  gangrene  poisoning. 

The  serum  was  developed  by  Dr.  Carrel  Bull  and  Miss 
Ida  W.  Pritchett,  of  the  Rockefeller  Institute,  by  immunizing 
horses  by  the  application  of  the  bacillus  germs,  then  obtaining 
the  resultant  serum  from  the  horses.  The  new  serum  dis- 
places, in  a  measure,  the  Dakin-Carrel  method  of  treatmg 
wounds.  As  soon  as  a  soldier  is  picked  up  wounded,  the  plan 
is  to  give  him  an  injection  of  the  serum  so  that  he  can  b§ 


CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  WAR.  369 

rushed  "^i  the  rear  ambulances  with  no  fear  that  the  deadly 
gas  infc  pion  will  develop. 

The  use  of  the  serum  means  the  wiping  out  of  the  big 
death  rate  from  infection,  with  death  resulting  merely  from 
wounds  that  are  in  themselves  fatal.  The  gas  bacillus  was 
discovered  by  Dr.  William  EL  Welch,  of  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity, 25  years  ago.  The  bacillus  frequently  is  present  in 
soil  and  when  carried  to  an  open  wound  germinates  quickly, 
developing  into  bubbles  of  gaseous  matter,  whence  comes  the 
name  "gas  bacillus,"  The  bubbles  multiply  rapidly,  a  few 
hours  often  being  sufficient  to  cause  death, 

A  WOUND-FLUSHING  SYSTEM. 
Possible  gangrene  poisoning  has  been  offset  by  the  Dakin- 
Carrel  system  of  constantly  flushing  the  open  wounds,  but 
patients  are  requently  too  far  oflE  to  be  given  the  advantage  of 
the  flushing  method  and  this  is  where  the  serum  is  chiefly  valu- 
iible.  The  ambulance  or  medical  corps  "shoots'*  the  serum 
iato  the  wounded  soldier  even  before  they  douse  his  wound 
rwith  iodine. 

The  progress  that  has  been  made  along  these  lines  is 
indicated  by  the  statement  of  Lord  Northcliffe,  who  after  a 
yisit  to  the  front  declared  that  the  annual  death  rate  in  the 
English  army  was  3  per  cent  of  1000  and  that  the  average 
illness,  including  colds  and  influenza,  was  less  than  in  London^ 
despite  the  discomforts  of  the  trenches. 

In  the  past  disease  has  been  as  destructive  as  battles. 
Biology  and  pathology,  to  say  nothing  of  surgery  and  thera- 
peutics, have  made  such  strides  that  disease  has  been  virtually 
eliminated  as  a  factor  in  warfare.  War  takes  medical  science 
into  the  field,  where  the  control  of  large  masses  of  men  enables 
it  to  develop  the  highest  efficiency. 

Even  in  normal  peace  conditions  biological  and  patholog- 
ical science  has  been  accomplishing  results  not  popularly  under- 
stood.    Individual  cm-es  by  surgery  and  medicine  appeal  to 


/ 

370  CHEMISTEY  IN  THE  WAR.  / 

personal  interests,  but  these  are  negligible  compare^to  tbe 
prevention  of  plagues  like  smallpox,  typhus  andTuKo  fs 

three  out  of  four  of  the  present  civilized  population  id  not 
be  in  existence  at  all.  The  organized  and  intensive  eppMon 
and  developments  of  science,  of 

^tnfi  7  ^  n  t"*''^  ^"'^  ^"  *^^^  ^^^  ^y  ^'^^'^^  ^11  h^-nity  will 
profit  for  all  tmie  to  come. 

In  passing  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  great  power 
supphed  by  Niagara  Palls  is  being  utilized  to  produce  some  of 

nl?T'\TT^'.-    ^^^  ^^"*  ^■"'J"«try  tl^^^e  i«  making 
Sot  ^b  *^«,fI^^t^olyt.^c  process.     That  is,  salt  brine  is  pmnped 
trom  the  saline  deposits  m  western  New  York  and  piped  to  the 
works.    This  IS  rmx  into  electric  cells  and  through  these  a 
current  of  electricity  is  led.    The  salt,  which  is  composed  of 
cWorine  and  sodium,  decomposes  under  the  electric  attack. 
iJie  sodium  goes  to  one  pole  and  combines  with  water  to  form 
caustic  soda,  whereas  the  chlorine  escapes  at  the  other  pole. 
l.et  us  follow  the  chlorine,  which  is  a  yellowish-green  gas,  more 
than  twice  as  heavy  as  air,  and  has  found  a  new  use  as  poison 
gas  m  the  great  war-for  which  aU  the  world  should  be 
ashamed. 

^  It  is  collected  and  compresssd  to  a  liquid  form  and  shipped 
m  contamers  under  pressure  for  use  in  chemical  works  and 
bleacheries  and  for  the  purification  of  drinking  water.  It  has 
been  found  above  all  things  effective  in  destroying  noxious 
bacilli.  A  surprisingly  small  amount  of  the  gas  dissolved  in 
the  water  is  enough.  In  New  York  city  the  water  has  been 
chlorinated  and  no  single  case  of  typhoid  fever  has  been  traced 
to  the  supply. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
OUR  NEIGHBORING  ALLY. 

CANADA'S    KeCEUITING-BAISE    33,000    TbOOPS    in     two    MONTHS-^FIBST    Expe^^^ 

TiONARY  Force  to  Cross  Atlantic-Bravery  at  Ypres  and  Lens-^-Meetinq 
DimcuLT  ProblemsH-Quebeo  Aroused  by  Conscription. 

THE  world  has  marveUed  at  the  achievement  of  Canada 
^t  Valcartier  camp  near  Quebec  and  the  dispatch  across 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  of  a  fully  equipped  expeditionary 
force  of  33,000  men  within  two  months  of  the  outbreak  of  war 
between  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  But  the  magnitude  of 
that  feat  cannot  be  appreciated  properly  until  one  considers 
that  on  August  4, 1914,  Canada  had  a  permanent  force  of  only 

about  3500  men. 

These  soldiers,  who  for  the  most  part  were  instructors  and 
mm  on  guard  duty,  provided  a  nucleus  for  a  training  organiza- 
tion. In  addition  to  its  "standing  army,"  the  Dominion  had 
an  active  militia  numbering  approximately  60,000  men.  Their 
training  consisted  of  what  has  been  aptly  called  "after-supper 
soldiering."  Members  of  city  regiments  drilled  for  one  night 
each  week,  participated  in  an  annual  church  parade  and  spent 
two  weeks  every  year  in  summer  camp. 

The  training  of  the  rural  regiments  consisted  ahnost 
entirely  of  the  two  weeks  in  summer  camp.  Yet  from  these 
militia  units  were  drawn  a  large  proportion  of  the  men  in  the 
first  Canadian  oversea  contingent,  while  the  militia  regiments, 
to  a  large  extent,  formed  the  basis  of  Canada's  recruiting 
organization  after  the  outbreak  of  hostilities. 

Enlistments  during  the  first  two  years  in  the  expeditionary 
force  numbered  approximately  415,000,  while  probably  150,000 
applicants  were  rejected  as  physically  unfii 

Immediately  upon  the  declaration  of  war  Major  General 
Sir  Bam  Hughes,  Minister  of  Militia,  telegraphed  the  officers 
commanding  j:he  militia  regiments  to  commence  recruiting  foi: 


S71 


372  OUR  NEIGHBORING  ALLY.  / 

oversea  service.  [After  the  recruits  were  signed  up  and 
accepted,  they  lived  at  home  and  drilled  during  the  day  at  the 
armories  throughout  the  Dominion. 

Meanwhile,  Valcartier  camp  was  being  prepared  for  the 
gathering  army.  The  building  of  this  great  military  center 
almost  overnight  was  an  engineering  feat  of  no  mean  magni- 
tude. Two  weeks  after  work  was  started,  troops  recruited  by 
the  militia  regiments  began  to  arrive,  and  before  the  end  of  a 
month  Valcartier  was  a  tented  city  of  25,000  soldiers. 

There  were  some  complaints,  of  course.  They  were  inevit- 
able in  an  encampment  so  hastily  prepared.  But  the  essentials 
were  there,  and  when  the  contingent  sailed  from  Gaspe,  on  the 
coast  of  Quebec,  on  October  3,  it  was  a  well-trained,  efficient 
body  of  soldiers,  besides  being  the  largest  army  |hat  ever 
crossed  the  Atlantic  at  one  time. 

AN  EFFICIENT  COMIVIANDER. 

The  contingent  was  in  command  of  Lieutenant-iGeneral 
Edwin  Alfred  Hervey  Alderson.  He  was  born  at  Ipswich 
in  1859  and  began  his  military  career  mth  the  Mihtia,  going 
to  the  regular  army  in  1878.  [He  joined  the  Royal  West  Kent 
Regiment  as  Second  Lieutenant  and  rapidly  ^von  promotion. 
He  served  in  the  Transvaal,  later  in  Egypt  and  participated  in 
actions  at  Kassassin  and  Tel-el-Kebir,  receiving  the  Kiedive's 
bronze  star.  Service  in  South  Africa  and  in  India  followed, 
during  which  General  Alderson  successively  became  Captain, 
Ma j  or  and  Lieutenant  Colonel.  He  became  a  Colonel  in  1903 
and  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Second  Infantry  Brigade,  and 
in  1908  commanded  the  Sixth  Division,  Southern  Army  of 
India,  having  meantime  been  given  the  rank  of  Major  General. 

After  the  departure  of  the  first  contingent  recruiting  was 
continued  by  the  militia  regiments,  and  during  the  winter  the 
men  were  quartered  in  exhibition  grounds,  Y.  M.  C  As.,  sheds, 
etc.  In  the  spring  of  1915  existing  camps  were  enlarged  and 
new  ones  opened. 


OUR  NEIGHBORING  ALLY.  ^'^3' 

During  this  period  the  recruiting  machinery  developed 
from  the  militia  regiments.  Through  the  latter  officers  were 
recommended  to  command  new  battalions.  These  O.  Cs. 
selected  most  of  their  subordinate  officers  from  their  own  militia 
regiments  and  used  the  parent  organization  as  a  general  basis 
for  recruiting  operations,  headquarters  being  located  at  the 

regimental  armories.         ■ 

The  keen  competition  existing  between  the  militia  units 
was  maintained  between  the  new  oversea  formations,  and 
battalions  were  raised  in  a  few  weeks.  For  months  enlist- 
ments all  over  Canada  averaged  more  than  1000  men  daily, 
and  with  recruits  coming  forward  at  this  rate,  there  was  no 
necessity  of  i)rotracted  delay  in  bringing  battalions  up  to 

strength. 

DIFFICUTY  OF  RECRUITING. 

There  was  a  disposition,  especially  in  military  circles,  to 
attribute  the  increasing  difficulty  of  the  recruiting  situation 
during  the  winter  of  1915-16  and  since  to  a  change  of  ^system 
and  the  introduction  of  the  so-called  "political  colonels.  The 
change,  however,  was  rather  the  result  of  new  conditions  than 
the  cause  of  it.    Recruiting  had  slowed  down— largely  from 

natural  causes. 

[A  new  appeal  was  needed  to  reach  a  class  of  ehgible  men 
who  had  not  yet  enlisted.  The  recruiting  problem  apparently 
had  outgrown  the  facilities  of  the  militia  organizations. 
Rightly  or  wrongly,  the  government  commissioned  a  number 
of  well-known  men,  without  military  experience,  to  raise 
battalions.  Their  popularity  and  local  confidence  in  them  were 
the  excuses  for  their  appointment— and  the  experiment  was 
in  the  main  successful. 

Perhaps  there  was  a  suggestion  of  politics  about  it, 
although  It  may  be  stated  emphatically  that  politics  had  not 
been  a  serious  influence  in  connection  with  the  recruiting, 
training  or  leadership  of  Canada's  oversea  forces.    That  such 


^^^  OUB  NEIGHBOEING  ALLY. 

is  the  case  stands  to  the  enduring  credit  of  Major  General 
Hughes. 

Tlie  attempt  to  "popularize"  recruiting  was  soon  found 
to  entail  serious  evils.  Competition  for  recruits  in  an  akeadv 
weU-combed  field  became  verjr  keen.  The  new  pohtical 
colonels  reahzed  that  their  reputations  were  at  stake,  and  in 
the  effort  to  fill  up  their  battalions  various  undignified  and 
regrettable  expedients  were  employed.  Cabarets,  bean-count- 
rng  contests,  lotteries  and  callithumpian  methods  generally 
marked  a  period  in  Canada's  recruiting  history  not  pleasant 
to  review,  and  which  brought  discredit  upon  the  entire  vol- 
untary enhstment  system  as  a  permanent  method  of  filling 
up  armies. 

TRAINING  SERIOUSLY  DELAYED. 
Besides  the  moral  influence  of  such  schemes  to  get  men  in 
khaki,  the  recruiting  efforts  of  the  political  colonels  had  a 
serious  effect  in  delaying  the  training  of  new  men.  With  their 
personal  reputations  as  organizers  involved,  the  commanding 
officers  were  reluctant  to  admit  inability  to  fill  up  the  ranks  of 
then-  units,  and  repeatedly  pleaded  for  more  tune. 

For  months  partly  recruited  battalions  made  little  or  no 
progress  with  their  training,  while  the  officers  devised  new 
recrmting  "stunts"  and  while  men  were  being  sought  in  the 
highways  and  byways. 

The  situation  was  complicated  by  allowing  a  number  of 
infantry  battalions  to  recruit  in  the  same  area  at  the  same  time, 
With  the  result  that  the  new  men  came  in  driblets,  valuable  time 
fwas  lost  and  much  money  wasted.  In  some  cases  it  has  taken 
weU  oyer  a  year  from  the  date  when  they  were  authorized  before 
battahons  were  dispatched  oversea— due  very  largely  to 
ineffective  recruiting  methods.  Battalions  were  allowed  fo 
eontmue  the  heart-breaking  quest  for  recruits  long  after  they 
should  have  been  amalgamated  and  sent  to  England.  Such 
amalgamations  came  ultimately,  battalions  retaining  their  iden- 
tity when  leaving  Canada  only  when  600  or  more  strong. 


OTJE  NEIGHBOKING  ALLY.  37S 

The  high  cost  of  recruits  was  a  direct  consequence  of  com- 
petition among  battahons  recruiting  independently  in  the  same 
territory  at  the  same  time.  The  government  allowance  was  not 
adequate  to  maintaia  the  pace  and  had  to  he  supplemented  by 

private  fxmds,  . 

There  was  in  Toronto  a  certain  group  of  fifty  recrmts 
referred  to  as  the  "$10,000  squad,"  because  it  is  estimated  that 
the  cost  of  recruiting  them  averaged  nearly  $200  each,  the 
money  coming  from  private  funds  of  officers  and  their  friends. 
Perhaps  the  estimate  involves  some  exaggeration,  but  many 
units  added  to  their  ranks  only  at  a  cost  of  $50  or  more  per 

"FPCTUIL 

Some  idea  of  the  waste  of  such  a  system  may  be  secured 
when  it  is  stated  that,  with  men  commg  forward  freely,  the  cost 
of  recruiting  is  considerably  less  than  $10  per  man,  even  after 
allowing  a  generous  bonus  to  the  recruiting  sergeants.  More 
serious  than  the  cost  in  money  was  the  delay  in  training  men 
needed  at  the  front. 

A  POLITICAL  IMPOSSIBILITY, 

Canada's  experience  constitutes  a  severe  indictment  of  the 
voluntary  system  of  recruiting,  although  sterner  measures  at 
the  outset  were  a  political  impossibility.  The  free-will  enhst- 
ment  plan  had  to  be  given  a  thorough  test,  and  its  inadequacy 
demonstrated  and  repeatedly  emphasized  before  public  opinion 
would  support  resort  to  compulsion. 

English-speaking  Canada  at  least  learned  that  lesson,  and 
it  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  the  United  States  would 
have  adopted  the  selective  draft  system  at  the  commencement 
of  its  participation  in  the  war,  if  it  had  not  been  that  the  experi- 
ence of  Canada  and  the  United  Kingdom  established  the  weak- 
ness inherent  in  the  voluntary  system. 

Besides  the  camp  at  Valcartier,  a  gTeat  artillery  camp  was 
set  up  at  Petewawa,  where  the  best  f acihties  existed  for  long 
range  gun  practice.    Ontario  saw  two  camps  at  Niagara  and 


376  OUR  KEIGHBOEING  ALLY. 

Camp  Borden ;  Manitoba  saw  one  on  the  plains,  Alberta  another 

£?L"erpTyr;:*"--^^^^^^^^ 

INADEQUATE  RECRUITING. 

The  volunteer  recruiting  in  Canada,  in  its  incipienev  while 

resultf ul,  was  soon  found  to  be  not  adequate.    UnS  W 

ever,  there  was  a  widespread  response  that  stirs  the  blood  fl 

men  h^ned  to  the  lines  from  the  Yukon  and  the  Peace  Ser  • 

from  Hudson's  Bay  and  the  farther  hinterlands,  from  prS 

and  mountam;  white  men  and  the  red  men;  cowboys  and  crtv 

chaps,  harvesters  and  hunters,  mechanics  Ind  mountaineer^ 

backwoodsmen  and  frontwoodsmen.    lAnd  also  among'he  en: 

Lters  were  thousands  of  Americans  who  fought  side  by  side 

.with  Canadian,  Briton  and  Frenchman.     ^  ^  «X  siae 

r..f  ^"'''^^  A^'  ^^^^^  ^^"■""^'^  settlements,  including  300  000 
German  and  Austrian  settlers  in  the  western  provinces  ProS 
action  was  taken  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  to  dea  wiJhX 
lo7oo  w  ^'^^T^'  P'°"^  ^^"^^^°"^  -^  disloyal.  Nearty 
CoZb7a"'AT  '^  "*""'''  ^''"^  ^"^^^  Scotil  to  British 
tir  •,  ^^^  proportion  were  Austrian  laborers  who 
had  been  railway  navvies.  These  were  placed  in  western  camps 
and  used  m  building  traUs  and  roads  in  national  parks, TS 
clearing  the  forest  for  future  settlement  in  Northern  OMari^ 

also  mlir  r,;  '  °^  ^°""  pro-German  sympathies  were 
also  put  out  of  harm's  way,  and  some  famous  trials  were  held 

i  of  r\'°r.^' -f  f  "*^^^  "™^^  t°  ^"  «t^--  thatTee- 
rZ^s  tC  •  t-  ^'"^'/'r'  '■"  *™^^  ''^  ^-^'  ^»d  *-t  the 
Delund  closed  doors  was  hardly  palatable. 

.^  iT-  ^^'''f '  "^^^^  ''^"^'^t  in  attempts  to  destroy  prop- 
erty  and  it  is  to  the  credit  of  police  and  military  vigilance  that 

Z:T"^f  "  ?r  "^'™«  d-^«-       The  Interll 
S/n  ..'  ^^"  ''"™'  ^'^^'"P^^'  ^"d  the  pro-German  in 
Canada  took  the  advice  of  the  United  States  Govermnent  to  its 


OUE  NEIGHBORING  ALLY.  377 

German  subjects  "to  keep  their  mouths  shut."  It  is  also  a  fact 
that  the  occupants  of  the  detention  camps  in  the  Dominion  were 
well  fed  and  treated,  in  striking  contrast  to  the  disturbing 
reports  that  leaked  through  as  to  the  way  Canadian  war 
prisoners  in  Germany  fared. 

CANADA'S  WAR  FINANCIERING. 

Next,  the  story  of  how  Canada  is  financing  her  share  of 
the  war,  for  it  is  a  costly  business.  Three  domestic  war  loans, 
totaling  $450,000,000,  were  voluntarily  subscribed,  each  in  fact 
being  doubly  underwritten,  and  yet  the  savings  of  the  people  in 
the  banks  is  (1917)  the  highest  on  record— over  a  billion  and  a 
quarter.  Part  of  the  war  revenue  is  being  raised  by  war  taxes 
on  letters,  checks,  legal  documents  and  some  articles  of  import. 
Happily  the  normal  revenue  of  the  country  was  never  so  large 
nor  the  trade  of  the  Dominion  so  buoyant.  All  these  factors 
are  helping  to  carry  the  war  burden.  ^ 

The  generosity  of  the  people,  under  the  heavy  strain,  was 
most  marked.  Many  millions  were  given  to  the  various  war 
help  funds,  chiefly  to  the  Red  Cross  and  the  Canadian  Patriotic 
Fund,  of  700  branches,  which  supplements  the  Government 
separation  allowance  to  soldiers'  dependents  b}^  other  grants. 
Canada  had,  up  to  that  time,  by  the  way,  the  highest  paid  sol- 
diery in  the  world,  privates  getting  $33  a  month. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  there  are  several  branches  of 
the  Canadian  Patriotic  Fund  in  the  United  States,  which  looked 
after  the  families  and  dependents  of  Americans  who  enlisted  in 
the  Canadian  ranks. 

Canadian  total  givlngs  in  cash  and  kind  to  their  own,  as  well 
as  to  the  Belgians,  French,  Servian,  Armenian  and  other  funds 
and  Governmental  grants  of  grain  and  provision,  would  repre- 
sent a  very  much  larger  figure  than  that  here  mentioned. 

The  orders  placed  In  Canada  averaged  $1,500,000  worth 
for  every  day  in  the  year. 

The  women  of  Canada  in  every  way  render  practical 


378  OUR  NEIGHBORING  ALLY. 

patriotic  service.  Hundreds  of  nurses  were  placed  in  oversea^ 
and  home  hospitals.  The  farmers'  wives  raised  large  sums  of 
money  as  did  the  school  children.  Organizations  of  all  kinds 
came  into  existence,  not  alone  collecting  money,  but  contribut- 
ing vast  quantities  of  war  material  and  soldiers'  comforts,  and 
sending  packages  of  food  and  clothing  regularly  to  Canadian 
prisoners  in  German  camps. 

Still  another  war  problem  was  the  care  of  the  returned 
wounded  soldiers,  and  a  serious  problem  it  was.  The  proces- 
sion of  the  disabled  was  a  pathetic  one.  MiHtary  convalescent 
hospitals  were  set  up  in  many  centres,  in  addition  to  the  open- 
ing of  private  homes  for  the  same  beneficent  piijpose, 

CANADA  PART  OF  AMERICA. 

Canada  may  be  an  English  possession,  but  to  us  it  is  parfc 
of  America,  and  certainly  no  two  countries  have  rested  side  by 
side  in  greater  friendship  than  the  '^Dominion"  and  the  United 
States.^  You  can  find  no  great  fortifications  along  the  3000 
odd  miles  of  border  between  Canada  and  the  tJnited  States. 
The  countries  have  lived  in  peace  and  harmony  and  together,  or 
side  by  side  they  have  battled  fo;^  peace  on  the  fields  o£ 
Flanders. 

All  the  world  knows  what  Canada  has  done  on  the  battle- 
fields abroad,  fighting  with  those  troops  from  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  India  and  lesser  English  territory,  to  drive  the  ruth- 
less Germans  back  and  crush  the  Empire  to  wEicIi  tEey  swear 
allegiance. 

The  Canadian  troops  were  taken  after  landing  m  Prance 
to  a  point  within  the  country  between  St.  Omer  and  Ypres, 
where  they  served  with  honor  to  themselves,  their  presence 
having  a  salutary  effect  on  the  British  soldiery,  who  had  been 
facing  the  German  forces.  At  the  battle  of  Neuve  Chapelle 
the  Canadians  held  part  of  the  line  allotted  to  the  first  army, 
and  while  not  engaged  in  the  main  attack,  rendered  valuable 


CUE  NEIGHBORING  ALLY.  379 

help,  their  artillery  being  very  active,  and  at  the  battle  of  Ypres 
in  April,  1915,  they  took  a  notable  part. 

In  the  latter  part  of  April,  the  Canadian  division  held  a 
line  of  about  5000  yards,  connecting  with  that  of  the  French 
troops,  and  faced  the  memorable  gas  attack  of  the  Germans, 
which  was  the  first  noted  in  the  war.  The  asphyxiatmg  gas  was 
projected  into  the  trenches  by  means  of  force  pumps  and  pipes 
laid  under  the  parapets,  the  German  sappers  having  carefully 
placed  these  conductors.  The  bulk  of  the  gas  was  directed 
against  the  French,  largely  made  up  of  Turcos  and  Zouaves, 
who  were  driven  back,  suffering  agonies. 

POSITION  BRAVELY  HELD. 
The  Canadians  suffered  to  some  extent  from  the  poison, 
and  though  there  were  in  the  commands  lawyers,  college  pro- 
fessors, business  men,  clerks  and  workers  of  a^l  sorts,  who  had 
been  turned  into  soldiers  within  a  few  months,  and  without  pre- 
vious military  experience,  they  held  their  position  bravely.  The 
Canadians  were,  of  course,  compelled  to  change  their  position 
after  the  French  fell  back,  and  the  Allied  troops  were,  to  all 
effects  and  purposes,  routed.  But  when  the  Germans,  recog- 
nizing the  weakened  position  of  the  Canadians,  attempted  to 
force  a  series  of  attacks,  the  Canadian  division,  as  a  matter  of 
record,  fought  through  the  day  and  through  the  night,  for 
forty-eight  consecutive  hours,  and  finally,  in  a  counter  attack, 
drove  the  Germans  back  and  regamed  a  position  which  had  been 
lost  by  the  British  troops  in  the  earUer  conflict. 

Later,  in  the  face  of  a  devastating  fire,  in  which  many 
officers  were  killed,  battalions  of  the  Canadians  carried  warfare 
to  the  first  line  of  German  trenches,  and  in  a  desperate  hand-to- 
hand  struggle  won  the  trench.  This  attack,  it  is  said,  secured 
and  maintained  during  the  most  critical  moment  of  the  cam- 
paign the  integrity  of  the  AlUed  line. 

In  connection  with  the  experience  of  the  Canadians  with 
the  gas  fumes,  it  is  necessary  to  note  that  at  that  time  they  were 


380  CUE  NEIGHBORING  ALLY. 

unprovided  with  gas  masks,  or  means  of  protecting  themselves 
against  the  fumes,  and  the  best  they  could  do  was  to  stuff  wet 
handkerchiefs  m  their  mouths.  The  fmnes,  although  extremely 
poisonous,  were  not  so  effective  with  the  Canadians  as  on  the 
t  rench  lines,  largely  because  of  the  position  of  the  Canadians 
and  the  direction  of  the  wind,  but  in  the  several  attacks  a  num' 
oer  ot  the  Canadians  were  asphyxiated. 

HEROES  WIN  RECOGNITION. 

So  all  through  the  Ypres  campaign,  the  Canadians  faced 
the  shot,  sheU  and  poisonous  gases  of  the  Germans,  and  won 
recognition  for  their  heroic  conduct  which  wiU  stand  to  the 
credit  of  Canada  for  aU  time.  At  Testubert,  Givenchy;  and, 
last  but  not  least,  Lens,  the  Canadians,  step  by  step,  kept  pace 
with  the  Allied  advances. 

In  their  general  advance  on  Lens  the  Canadians  occupied 
the  strongest  outpost  in  the  defense  of  that  place,  and  pushmg 
their  troops  on  toward  La  Coulotte,  entered  that  village.  The 
Germans  withdrew  in  this  neighborhood  from  a  line  about  one 
and  three-quarters  miles  long. 

The  task  of  the  Canadians  was  lo  capture  German  out- 
posts southwest  of  Reservour  Hill.  The  attack  was  evidently 
expected.  The  Germans  scuttled,  abandoning  ground  upon 
which  machine  gun  fire  was  immediately  turned  by  Germans 
located  on  the  hill.  This  was  speedily  f  oUowed  by  heavy  artil- 
lery fire,  which  continued  during  the  night  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Lens  electric  station. 

The  enemy's  dugouts  were  searched,  found  to  be  empty, 
and  wrecked. 

The  German  retirement  ceased  during  the  night.  Patrols 
sent  out  opposite  Mericourt  and  to  the  south  found  the  enemy's 
front  line  strongly  held.  The  Germans  made  huge  craters  at 
all  cross  roads  in  Avion  and  leading  towards  Lens. 

Patrols  which  were  sent  out  reached  the  summit  of  Reser- 
.voir  Hill  without  opposition  and  pushed  on  down  the  eastern 


OUR  NEIGHBORING  ALLY.  381 

slope  and  the  strong  Lens  outpost  was  effectively  occupied. 
Meanwhile,  south  of  the  Souchez  River  the  Canadians  drove 
forward  on  the  heels  of  the  retiring  Germans.  Railway  em- 
bankments east  of  Lens  electric  station  were  occupied.  The 
advance  was  then  continued  toward  La  Coulotte.  As  night  fell 
strong  parties  were  sent  out  to  consolidate  the  positions  occu- 
pied, while  patrols  were  sent  forward  to  keep  in  touch  with  the 

Germans. 

WANTON  DESTRUCTI0N.1 

Several  days  previous  the  Germans  were  known  to  be 
destroying  houses  in  the  western  part  of  Lens,  with  the  object 
of  giving  a  wider  area  of  fire  for  their  guns.  It  was  their  inten- 
tion of  clinging  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  city  and  prolonging 
the  struggle  by  house-to-house  fighting. 

Under  a  protecting  concentration  of  artillery  fire,  Cana- 
dian troops  successfully  stormed  and  captm-ed  the  German 
front  line  before  Avion,  a  suburb  of  Lens.  By  the  advance  the 
British  line  was  carried  forward  to  within  one  mile  of  the  centre 
of  Lens. 

The  Canadians,  heartened  by  successes  gained  in  a  few 
days  at  a  relatively  small  cost,  decided  to  attack  across  the  open 
ground  sloping  upwards  to  Avion  and  the  village  of  Leauvette, 
near  the  Souchez  River.  They  met  with  opposition  of  a  serious 
character  at  only  one  point,  where  a  combination  of  machine 
gun  fire  and  uncut  wires  delayed  the  advance.  The  attack  was 
not  intended  to  be  pressed  home  at  this  particular  spot,  as  the 
ground  specially  favored  the  Germans,  so  that  the  delay  did  no 
harm.  The  assaulting  troops  comprised  men  from  British 
Columbia,  Manitoba,  Centi-al  Ontario  and  Nova  Scotia. 

The  attack  was  made  along  a  two-mile  front.  On  the 
extreme  left.  Nova  Scotians  pushed  their  way  up  the  Lens- 
Arras  road  to  the  village  of  Leauvette.  Here  they  took  a  num- 
ber of  prisoners.  At  the  other  end  of  the  line,  east  of  the  rail- 
way tracks,  enemy  dugouts  were  bombed.     Their  occupants 


382  OUK  NEIGHBOEING  ALLY. 

belonged  to  the  crack  Prussian  Guards  Corps,  the  Fifth  Guard 
Grenadiers,  who  refused  in  most  cases  to  come  out  and  sur- 
render. 

At  daybreak,  Canadian  airplanes.  Hying  low  over  Avion, 
saw  few  Germans  there.  Craters  which  had  been  made  by  mine 
exposions  at  the  crossroads,  seriously  hindered  them  in  bring- 
ing up  troops  from  Lens  for  counter  attacks. 
GERMAN  AVIATIK  DEFEATED. 
In  an  air  duel  fought  at  probably  the  highest  altitude  at 
which  aviators,  up  until  that  time,  had  met  in  combat,  nearly 
four  miles,  a  Canadian  triplane  pursued  and  defeated  a 
German  two-seated  Aviatik.  The  German  machine  had  sought 
safety  by  climbing  upward  and  the  triplane  pursued.  At  a 
height  of  20,000  feet  the  pilot  of  the  German  craft  either  fell 
or  jumped  from  it  and  disappeared  at  the  moment  of  the  first 
burst  of  fire  from  the  gun  on  the  Canadian.  The  German 
observer  then  was  seen  to  climb  out  upon  the  tail  of  the  machine, 
where  he  lost  his  hold  and  plunged  headlong.  g?he  Aviatik 
turned  its  nose  down  and  fell. 

It  is  meet  that  some  note  be  taken  of  the  fact  that  while 
the  Canadian  soldiers  were  battling  for  humanity  and  the 
preservation  of  the  British  Empire  in  Flanders  there  was 
being  celebrated  in  their  native  land  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of 
the  founding  of  the  Dominion.  All  Canada  took  part  in  the 
celebration  on  June  1, 1917,  as  did  large  numbers  of  men  from 
the  United  States  officers'  training  camp  at  Niagara,  where 
recruits  were  preparing  to  receive  Conmiissions  in  Uncle  Sam's 
Army. 

Up  until  1867  Canada  had  been  the  scene  of  bitter  strife 
between  the  French  and  British.  At  that  time  the  provinces 
were  brought  quite  closely  together,  and  commenced  a  new  era 
of  prosperity.  The  foundation  was  then  laid  for  a  wonderfully 
prosperous  country,  one  filled  with  almost  limitless  possibilities. 
,The  confederation  of  [Canada  had  its  birth  in  a  meeting  of 


CUE.  NEIGHBORING  ALLY.  383 

'delegates  from  all  over  British  North  America,  which  was  held 
in  1864,  and  these  delegates,  after  dehberating  for  nearly  three 
weeks,  passed  a  large  number  of  resolutions  which  formed  the 
basis  of  what  eventually  became  the  Act  of  Union.  In  the  f  ol- 
lowig  January  these  resolutions  were  submitted  to  the  Legis- 
lature of  Canada  and  after  due  debate  there  was  passed  in  both 
chambers  of  Parliament  a  measure  for  the  purpose  of  uniting 
the  provinces  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Quebec 
resolutions.    The  meeting  was  in  Quebec. 

PLAN  OF  UNION  PASSED. 

A  number  of  difficulties  were  encountered,  so  that  it  was 
1867  before  the  plan  of  union  was  submitted  to  the  Imperial 
Parliament,  where  it  was  warmly  received  and  passed  without 
alteration  of  any  description  within  a  few  days.  The  royal 
lassent  was  given  on  March  29,  and  the  act  constituting  the  new 
Canada  went  into  eflfect  on  July  1,  which  day  has  since  become 
loiown  as  Dominion  Day,  and  is  the  chief  of  all  Canadian  holi- 
days. 

The  federal  Constitution  of  Canada  is  contained  in  an 
Imperial  Act  of  Parliament,  known  as  the  British  North 
America  Act,  and  it  is  based  very  largely  upon  that  of  the 
mother  country.  The  ministry  of  the  day  holds  office  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  House  of  Commons,  the  members  of  which  are 
elected  by  the  people.  At  the  head  of  the  affairs  is  a  Governor- 
fGeneral,  who  is  appointed  by  the  crown  and  paid  by  the  people 
of  Canada.  As  is  the  case  with  the  British  sovereigns,  he  acts 
with  and  on  the  advice  of  the  ministers  for  the  time  being,  and 
also  like  the  King,  he  can  dissolve  the  Parhament. 

The  number  of  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  is 
regulated  by  the  following  clauses  of  the  act:  "On  the  comple- 
tion of  the  census  in  the  year  1871,  and  of  each  subsequent 
decennial  census,  the  representation  of  the  four  provinces  shall 
be  readjusted  by  such  authority  in  such  a  manner,  and  from 


384  OUK  NEIGHBORING  ALLY. 

such  time  as  the  Parliament  of  Canada  from  time  to  time  pro- 
yides. 

Previous  to  the  passing  of  the  British  North  America  Act, 
the  great  Dominion  had  consisted  of  a  conglomeration  of 
provinces,  some  of  them  of  almost  fabulous  extent,  into  which 
the  white  man  from  the  West  had  penetrated.  Tradition  has 
it  that  some  thousand  years  ago  a  Norseman,  by  name  Leif 
Ericson,  coming  in  his  great  beaked  galley,  through  the 
northern  seas,  from  Greenland,  was  the  first  white  man  to 
istand  on  Canadian  soil. 

Another  five  centuries  were,  however,  to  pass  before  John 
Cabot,  sailing  from  Bristol,  in  the  days  of  Henry  Bolingbroke, 
brought  the  first  British  ship  into  a  Canadian  port.  After  him 
the  fishermen  of  Europe  came  in  increasing  numbers  to  the 
great  banks,  with  the  result  that  little  by  little,  as  their  tiny 
vessels  touched  the  American  shores,  the  great  continent  began 
Jo  be  known  to  the  people  of  Europe. 

DOMINION'S  FOUNDATIONS  LAID. 

It  was  not  really,  however,  until  the  year  1534  that  the 
foundations  of  the  Dominion  may  be  said  to  have  been  sunk. 
In  that  year  Jacques  Cartier  sailed  from  the  port  of  St.  Malo, 
with  two  little  ships,  intending  to  attempt  the  northwest 
passage  to  [Japan.  Francis  the  First  was  then  ruling  in  Paris, 
and  there  was  great  adventure  in  the  air  of  France.  Cartier 
did  not  make  the  northwest  passage,  but  he  did  touch  the  coast 
of  Canada,  or,  to  be  more  exact,  the  coasts  of  Labrador  and 
Newfoundland.  It  was  then  the  10th  of  May,  and  having 
sailed  around  the  island,  he  steered  south,  and  crossing  the  gulf 
entered  the  bay  which,  by  reason  of  the  great  heats  of  midsum- 
mer, he  named  Des  Chaleurs.  Holding  along  the  coast,  he 
fcame  to  the  little  inlet  of  Gaspe,  and  here,  at  the  entrance  to 
the  harbor,  he  erected  a  huge  cross  surmounted  by  the  arms  and 
lilies  of  France.    He  could  find  no  passage,  however,  to  the 


OUR  NEIGHBORING  ALLY.  385 

northwest,  and  so  he  turned  his  ship,  and  sailed  back  to  St. 
Malo. 

The  Court  in  Paris  heard  his  story  with  interest.  His 
cause  was  taken  up  by  the  King;  and,  as  a  result,  in  the  suc- 
ceeding May,  he  sailed  again  to  the  new  world  with  three  well 
found  ships.  On  the  day  of  Saint  Lawrence  he  entered  the 
great  bay,  to  which  he  at  once  gave  the  name  of  the  Saint,  and 
passing  on  came,  in  September,  to  anchor  in  the  Isle  of  Orleans, 

REAL  FOUNDER  OF  CANADA. 

The  man,  however,  with  whose  name  the  early  history  of 
Canada  is  most  fully  connected,  had  not  as  yet  been  born.  Nor 
was  it  until  the  year  1567  that,  at  Brouage  in  Saintonge, 
Samuel  de  Champlain  came  upon  the  scene.  In  the  year  1603, 
when  Elizabeth  was  ruling  in  England,  and  Henry  of  Navarre 
in  France,  Champlain  came  to  Canada.  He  had  been  a  soldier 
of  le  Bearnais,  in  the  great  wars  with  the  League,  an  oiBcer  of 
marine,  and  a  man  with  no  little  knov/ledge  of  natural  science, 
as  knowledge  was  then  accounted.  He  came  now  in  cormnand 
of  an  expedition,  fitted  out  by  the  merchants  of  Rouen,  with 
the  idea  of  forming  a  Canada  company,  as  England  had  her 
Barbary  Company,  her  Eastland  Company,  her  Muscovie 
Company,  or  her  Turkey  Company.  And  in  this  way  the 
French  came  into  Canada. 

Thus  there  began  those  American  wars  between  the  two 
countries,  divided  at  home  only  by  the  English  ^Channel,  which 
went  on  century  by  century,  largely  tlu'ough  the  employment 
of  the  Indian  tribes,  until  that  September  night  when  Y/olfe's 
boats  drifted  In,  from  the  fleet  to  the  shore,  and  the  battle  on 
the  Plains  of  Abraham  permanently  settled  the  question  of 
domination  in  favor  of  the  British. 

The  British  conquest  of  Canada  did  not,  however,  mean  the 
cessation  of  fighting.  There  came,  presently,  the  war  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  American  colonies,  one  of  the  most  amaz- 
ing exploits  of  which  was  the  marvelous  march  of  Arnold  and 


386  OUR  NEIGHBOEING  ALLY. 

Montgomery  through  the  forests  of  Maine  to  the  St.  Law- 
rence, ending  in  the  wonderful  siege,  of  the  year  1775,  and  the 
heroic  failure  to  storm  the  defenses  by  scaling  the  rocks  from 
the  river  bed.  Eventually  the  boundary  between  the  United 
States  and  the  British  possessions  was  settled  by  the  Treaty  of 
Paris,  in  1783,  just  twenty  years  after  an  earlier  Treaty  of 
Paris  had  recorded  the  surrender  of  Canada  by  France  to  Great 
Britain. 

CANADA,  FROM  COLONY  TO  DOMINION. 

For  the  last  centmy  and  a  half  the  story  of  Canada  has  been 
the  story  first  of  a  British  colony  and  then  of  a  British 
Dominion.  A  great  flood  of  new  colonists  had  come  into  the 
country  after  the  victory  of  the  States  in  the  War  of  Independ- 
ence, when  many  of  the  royalists  of  New  England  crossed  the 
border.  As  a  result,  there  had  grown  up  the  two  new  provinces 
of  Upper  Canada,  now  known  as  Ontario,  and  New  Bruns- 
wick. The  relations  between  all  the  provinces  were,  however, 
far  from  harmonious,  with  the  result  that  what  between  quar- 
rels among  themselves  and  risings  against  the  British  author- 
ity, the  condition  of  Canada  was  anything  but  promising,  when, 
after  the  Rebellion  of  1837,  Lord  Durham  was  sent  over  to  try 
to  evolve  order  out  of  chaos. 

He  found  the  ^'habitant"  still  unreconciled  to  the  British 
rule;  he  found  a  condition  of  many  little  Pontiacs,  all  very 
much  as  was  that  famous  village  on  the  summer  evening  when 
Valmond  threw  the  hot  pennies  to  the  children,  as  the  auctioneer 
and  monsieur  le  cure  came  down  the  street;  he  found  another 
Canada  of  British  colonists  with  so  little  sympathy  for  the 
habitant,  that,  he  declared,  the  two  never  met  save  in  the  jury 
box,  and  there  only  to  obstruct  justice. 

It  was  then  that  Lord  Durham,  by  a  great  stroke  of  states- 
manship, brought  peace  to  Canada.  A  democratic  form  of 
representative  government  was  bestowed  on  the  people.  The 
division  of  Quebec  into  two  provinces,  which  the  habitant  ha4 


OUR  NEIGHBOKING  ALLY.  387 

desired  when  they  were  one,  and  resented  when  they  were  two, 
was  annulled,  with  the  result  that  the  ground  was  prepared  for 
the  union  which  was  to  come  just  thirty  years  later. 

Lord  Durham  made  history  and  made  a  nation,  for  the 
confederation,  when  it  came,  was  the  inevitable  superstructure 
built  upon  the  foundations  of  his  laying,  but  he  ruined  a  repu- 
tation. His  contempt  for  the  conventions  of  politics,  the  radi- 
cahsm  of  his  methods,  his  failure  to  make  any  obeisance  to  the 
governmental  deities,  official  or  ex-official,  combined  with  his 
almost  superhuman  tactlessness,  gave  his  enemies  every  oppor- 
tunity they  could  desire. 

He  was  viciously  attacked,  and  finally  throwing  up  his 
mission,  returned  to  England  and  gave  up  politics. 

REPORT  NOT  TO  BE  DISPOSED  OF. 
The  good,  however,  men  do  lives  after  them.  Lord  Dur- 
ham's report,  drafted  for  him  by  two  master  hands,  those  of 
Charles  Buller  and  Edward  Wakefield,  could  not  be  disposed 
of  by  perfervid  orators  or  ill-informed  editors.  It  passes  into 
the  category  of  historic  and  illuminating  state  papers.  And, 
though  Lord  Durham  fell,  when,  on  the  first  of  July,  1867,  the 
British  Nbrth  America  Act  became  operative,  it  was  the  handle 
of  his  trowel  that  struck  that  great  cornerstone  of  liberty  and 
empire,  and  declared  it  well  and  truly  laid:  the  first  of  the 
Dominions,  now  having  a  population  of  approximately 
8,000,000. 

Thrown  upon  their  own  resources,  when  Great  Britain 
began  to  draw  in  its  loans  of  1911-12,  the  people  of  Canada 
were  temporarily  at  a  loss  as  to  how  to  meet  the  situation;  the 
hardships  which  followed,  however,  prepared  them  to  meet, 
with  resolute  determination,  the  greater  problems  that  crowded 
upon  them  in  1915-16.  Canada,  through  all  the  past,  had  been 
a  dependent  and  a  debtor  nation;  the  war  made  it  self-reliant, 
spurred  its  people  on  to  the  development  of  natural  resources, 
and  assured  them,  not  only  that  the  Dominion  could  stand 


388  OUR  NEIGHBOEING  ALLY. 

alone,  but  that,  throughout  all  the  future,  it  can  be  a  pillar  of 
strength  to  the  Empire  and  to  democracy. 

There  were  times  when  she  was  threatened  by  more  than 
the  ordinary  difficulties  which  come  to  a  nation,  as  when  it 
became  necessary  in  1917  to  pass  a  Conscription  Act,  the  Pro- 
vince of  Quebec  threatened  to  secede.  Quebec  is  a  French  ter- 
ritory, and  it  was  a  matter  of  world-wide  comment  that  the 
volunteer  enlistments  for  the  Canadian  army  from  the  province 
were  insignificant. 

While  the  French  Canadians  were  proud  of  France  and 
their  cousins  across  the  seas,  they  were  opposed  to  being  com- 
pelled to  iight  for  England,  and  the  proposal  to  secede  was 
largely  advocated  by  the  French- Canadian  clergy. 
RECIPIENTS  OF  UNSTINTED  HONORS. 

lAmong  the  heroic  troops  that  faced  the  Germans  in 
Flanders  none  was  more  honored  in  all  Canada  and  England 
than  the  Princess  Patricia's  Light  Infantry.  Out  of  this  bat- 
talion, which  sailed  away  from  Canada's  shores  with  the  first 
expeditionary  force,  scarcely  one-fourth  of  the  proud  number 
lived  through  the  terrible  campaigns  of  Flanders,  in  which  the 
Dominion  forces  participated. 

The  battalion  constituted  what  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  efficient  mihtary  units  in  Canada,  and  in  August,  1914), 
had  been  presented  with  colors  wrought  by  the  hand  of  Princess 
Patricia,  daughter  of  the  Governor  General  of  Canada,  the 
Duke  of  Connaught.  The  Princess,  standing  beside  her 
mother,  the  Duchess  of  Connaught,  in  Lansdowne  Park, 
Ottawa,  presented  the  colors  to  the  little  force,  wishing  them  a 
safe  return,  while  thousands  applauded  and  the  spirit  of  patri- 
otism ran  high. 

The  "Princess  Pats,'^  as  tKey  came  to  be  knovm,  had  with- 
in the  organization  a  large  portion  of  men  of  military  experi- 
ence who  had  seen  service  in  South  Africa  and  elsewhere,  and 
consequently  when  they  landed  in  France  they  were  the  first  to 


OUE  KEIGHBOEING  ALLY.  389 

be  sent  into  the  trenches  and  to  action.  In  the  winter  and 
spring  of  1914-15  they  had  some  bitter  experiences  and  parti- 
cipated in  several  desperate  attacks  and  defenses,  but  it  was 
not  until  the  campaign  at  Ypres  that  the  organization  was 
almost  annihilated,  when  it  faced  one  of  the  most  terrific  bom- 
bardments of  the  war,  and  fought  in  a  section  largely  cut  off 
from  the  main  line.  Here  Lieutenant-Colonel  Farquhar,  com- 
mander of  the  battalion,  lost  his  life  and  nearly  all  of  the  officers 
were  wounded. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
THE  HEUOIC  ANZAC. 

FOBCES  THAT  StIERED  THE  WOELD  IN  THE  GaLLIPOLI  CAMPAIGNS — FAMOUS  AS   SaP* 

PEES — The  Blasting  of  Messines   Bidge — Two  Yeaes  Tunneling — 30,000 
Gebmans  Blown  to  Atoms — 1,000,000  Pounds  of  Explosives  Used — Teoops 

THAT  WEEE  TbANSPOETED  11,000  MiLES. 

WHEN  the  final  history;  of  the  ivar  is  written,  and  the 
years  have  passed  into  ages,  the  story  of  the  Anzac  will 
form  a  hrilliant  passage  in  the  book  of  nations.  The 
Anzae  in  the  campaigns  at  Gallipoli,  the  Dardanelles,  and  in 
Flanders  served  England  with  a  loyalty  and  heroism  not  excel- 
led by  any  other  force.  And  what  were  the  Anzacs?  They 
were  the  soldiers  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  Xet  A  repre- 
sent Australia,  N.  Z.,  New  Zealand,  and  A.  C,  army  corps, 
and  you  have  the  basis;  :of  the  word  Anzac. 

Generally  in  the  news  dispatches,  the  Anzacs  have  been 
referred  to  as  Australians.  They  are  described  as  fearless,  dar- 
ing and  fierce  fighters,  whose  presence!  added  pep  to  every 
engagement  in  which  they  participated,  [No  more  picturesque 
gToup  has  ever  been  written  into  the  history  of  armies.  Com- 
posed of  men  v/ho  were  bushrangers,  cattlemen,  miners  and 
hardy  outdoor  workers,  many  of  whom  served  in  Egypt,  India 
and  wherever  the  British  flag  floats,  their  character  is  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  they  have  been  at  times  called  the  ^'Ragtime 
Army/' 

The  description  of  the  landing  of  these  troops  at  the  Dar- 
danelles, where  in  a  rain  of  artillery  fire,  they  dashed  into  the 
Tm-kish  trenches,  is  one  of  the  most  thrilling  of  the  war.  With 
the  shells  from  the  ships  falling  upon  the  Turkish  forces  the 
Anzacs  chased  the  Turks  step  by  step  inland,  engaging  in  the 
most  desperate  hand-to-hand  encounters. 

Perhaps  the  story  of  that  first  battle  might  have  been  dif- 
ferent had!  not   Turkish  reinforcements   appeared  upon  the 

390 


THE  HEROIC  ANZAC.  391 

scene.  Ss  it  wag  the  British  men  of  Anzac  were  temporarily 
driven  back,  retiring  with  terrible  loss.  For  hours  the  Austra- 
lians engaged  in  solid  fighting  through  a  broken  and  hilly 
country,  digging  at  night  to  establish  entrenchments,  with  a 
renewal  of  the  defense  at  daybreak,  and  then  repeating  the 
program.  This  is  what  the  Australians  and  New  Zealanders 
did,  living  upon  short  rations  the  while. 

In  all  of  the  campaigns  in  which  the  Angacs  have  parti- 
cipated their  work  as  sappers  has  been  a  feature.  Sappers,  by 
the  way,  are  those  men  who,  in  modern  warfare,  burrow  in  the 
earth,  planting  mines,  digging  trenches,  dugouts  and  fortifica- 
tions. The  Australians  are  fitted  for  this  work  for  a  large  per- 
centage of  them  had  civil  experience  in  the  mines,  and  on 
extensive  contract  and  excavation  work, 

AUSTRALIAN  AND  NEW  ZEALAND  SAPPERS. 

Probably  one  of  the  most  effective  attacks  of  the  English 
against  a  German  stronghold  in  Belgium  was  made  possible 
through  the  work  of  the  Australian  and  New  Zealand  sappers. 
That  was  the  blowing  up  of  the  Messines  Ridge  in  June,  1917. 
In  this  action  the  Anzac  shone  in  a  manner  that  can  never  be 
forgotten.  .    -         ,       ^ 

On  Jime  7, 1917,  the  British,  with  one  terrible  istroke,  tore 
asunder  the  strong  German  position  south  of  Ypres.  This 
stroke  was  in  a  little  corner  of  Belgium,  where  the  armies  of  the 
Allies  had  successfully  outgeneralledL  the?  enemy  for  two  and  a 
half  years.  *    \    .    / 

During  almost  two  years  of  tliiiS  Kme  iseveral  companies 
of  Australian,  New  Zealand  and  British  sappers  were  busily 
but  silently  engaged  in  mining  the  hills  pf  the  Messines- 
Wjiischaete  Ridge,  on  which  were  the  guns  of  the  Germans 
which  had  been  raking  the  troops  of  the  Allies  all  this  time. 
Nineteen  great  mines  which  contained  a  total  of  1,000,000 
pounds  of  ammonite  upon  their  completion, -had  been  dug  into 
the  vitals  of  these  hills.    Great  charges  of  this  new  and  power« 


392  THE  HEROIC  ANZAC. 

ful  explosive  had  been  placed  in  the  mines  nearly  one  year 
before  their  completion,  yet  no  one  except  those  actually 
engaged  in  the  work  knew  of  it.  The  secret  was  kept  and  the 
troops  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand  worked  directly  beneath 
the  great  German  fortifications. 

Then  came  the  crucial  moment.  At  exactly  8,10  o'clock, 
in  the  morning  of  June  7,  the  whole  series  of  mines  were  dis- 
charged by  electrical  contact,  and  the  hilltops  were  blown  high 
in  the  air  in  one  terrific  burst  of  flame,  which  poured  forth  as 
from  craters  of  volcanoes.  The  ground  for  miles  around  v/as 
rocked  as  in  an  earthquake,  and  the  roar  emitted  was  distinctly 
heard  in  England  by  Lloyd  George,  the  Prime  Minister,  listen- 
ing for  it  at  his  country  home  140  miles  away. 
A  PRE-ARRANGED  SIGNAL. 

The  explosion  of  the  mines  was  a  pre-arranged  signal  for 
the  beginning  of  a  heavy  shell  fire  by  the  artillery.  The  whole 
section  affected  by  the  mines  was  subjected  to  a  most  intense 
shellfire,  and  following  up  this  death-dealing  storm  came  the 
troops  of  General  Haig,  under  Sir  Herbert  Plumer,  who  fti- 
ished  the  work  of  the  great  mines  and  big  guns  with  a  brilliant 
charge  of  men,  who  used  rifle  and  bayonet  most  effectively. 
Within  a  fewi  hours  the  whole  of  the  Messines  Ridge  5vas 
securely  in  the  hands  of  the  British,  and  they  had  captured  70001 
prisoners  and  many  guns.  The  German  casualties  were  esti- 
mated at  80,000,  those  of  the  British  being  about  10,000. 

Rushimg  the  whole  sector  south  of  Ypres,  from  Observa- 
tion Ridge  to  Ploegsteert  Wood,  north  of  Armentieres,  the 
British  forces  succeeded  in  capturing  that  position  with  little 
loss.  Then  came  the  assault  of  the  rear  defenses,  which  were 
formed  by  the  ridge  itself.  The  natural  formation  of  the  land 
gi-eatly  helped  the  Germans  in  arranging  their  defenses,  and  the 
fighting  was  very  fierce.  The  work  of  British  troops,  in  which 
were  many  Australians  and  New  Zealanders,  together  with 
[English  and  Irish,  all  under  the  command  of  General  Sir 


THE  HEROIC  ANZAC.  393 

Herbert  C.  O.  Plumer,  was  given  great  credit  in  the  reports  of 
the  commander  to  the  War  OfRce. 

The  Eritish  War  Office  summarized  the  attack  as  follows 
in  its  report  of  June  8 : 

"The  position  captured  by  us  yesterday  was  one  of  the 
enemy's  most  important  strongholds  on  the  western  front. 
Dominating  as  it  did  the  Ypres  sahent  and  giving  the  enemy 
complete  observation  over  it,  he  neglected  no  precautions  to 
render  the  position  impregnable.    These  conditions  enabled  the 
enemy  to  overlook  all  our  preparations  for  attack,  and  he  had 
moved  up  reinforcements  to  meet  us.     The  battle,  therefore, 
became  a  gauge  of  the  abihty  of  the  German  troops  to  stop  our 
advance  under  conditions  as  favorable  to  them  as  an  army  can 
ever  hope  for,  with  every  advantage  of  ground  and  preparation 
and  with  the  knowledge  that  an  attack  was  impending. 
GERMAN  FORWARD  DEFENSE. 
"The  German  forward  defenses  consisted  of  an  elaborate 
and  intricate  system  of  well-wired  trenches  and  strong  points 
forming  a  defensive  belt  over  a  mile  in  depth.       Numerous 
farms  and  woods  were  thoroughly  prepared  for  the  defense, 
and  there  were  large  numbers  of  macliine  guns  in  the  German 
garrisons.    Guns  of  all  cahbers,  recently  increased  in  numbers, 
were  placed  to  bear  not  only  on  the  front  but  on  the  flanks  of  an 
attack.    Numerous  commimicating  trenches  and  switch  lines, 
radiatmg  in  all  directions,  v>^ere  amply  provided  with  strongly 
constructed  concrete  dugouts  and  machine-gun  emplacements 
designed  to  protect  the  enemy  garrison  and  machine  gunners 
from  the  effect  of  our  bombardment.    In  short,  no  precaution 
was  omitted  that  could  be  provided  by  the  incessant  labor  of 
years,  guided  by  the  experience  gained  by  the  enemy  in  his 
previous  defeats  on  the  Somme,  at  Arras,  and  on  Vim_y  Ridge. 

"Despite  the  difficulties  and  disadvantages  which  our 
troops  had  to  overcome,  further  details  of  yesterday's  fighting 
ghow  that  our  first  assault  and  the  subsequent  attacks  were  car* 


394  THE  HEEOIC  ANZAC. 

ried  out  in  aIino.3t  exact  accordance  vv^ith  the  timetable  pre- 
viously arranged.     *     *     * 

"Following  on  the  great  care  and  thoroughness  in  prepara- 
tions made  under  the  orders  of  General  Sir  Herbert  Plumer, 
the  complete  success  gained  may  be  ascribed  chiefly  to  the 
destruction  caused  by  our  mines,  to  the  violence  and  accuracy 
of  our  bombardment,  to  the  very  fine  work  of  the  Royal  Flying 
Corps,  and  to  the  incomparable  dash  and  courage  of  the  infan- 
try. The  whole  force  acted  in  perfect  combination.  Excellent 
work  was  done  by  the  tanks,  and  every  means  of  offense  at  our 
disposal  was  made  use  of,  so  that  every  arm  of  the  service  had  a 
share  in  the^victory." 

A  good  description  of  the  Australian  soldier,  as  he  follows 
up  his  victory,  was  given  in  a  story  of  an  American  war  corre- 
spondent, who  wrote  concerning  Flanders : 

NEW  LAND  OF  WARFARE. 

"After  these  many  months  of  trench  warfare  there  is  keen 
delight  for  the  Australian  soldier  in  this  new  land  of  warfare 
which  the  German  retirement  has  opened  up.  The  fighting  is 
in  open  country  now,  over  gently  rolling  downs  of  what  looks 
like  grass  land.  It  is  really  most  of  it  wheat  or  turnip  land 
which  has  not  been  cultivated  for  a  year  or  two.  The  country  is 
as  open  as  the  Australian  central  plains. 

"It  is  quite  a  new  sort  of  battlefield  for  the  Australians. 
They  march  down  to  it  through  valleys  almost  exactly  like  the 
valleys  in  the  peaceful  parts  of  France,  There  are  whole  acres 
in  which  one  cannot  see  a  single  shell  hoje.  Back  across  the 
green  country  or  down  the  open  roads  come  men  in  twos  or 
threes  occasionally,  sauntering  as  one  might  find  them  on  a 
country  road.  They  are  the  wounded  helping  one  another 
back  to  the  dressing  station.  The  walking  wounded  have  to 
help  each  other  back  in  these  modern  battles.  It  is  no  longer 
looked  upon  as  meritorious  for  an  unwounded  combatant  to 
leave  the  field  and  help  a  wounded  comrade  to  the  rear. 


THE  HEROIC  ANZAC.  395 

^'Nearest  the  front  the  country  becomes  more  feverish. 
Angiy  bursts  of  tawny  color  are  seen  in  a  haphazard  sort  of 
way  dotting  the  horizon  and  the  countryisjde.  Here  and  there 
are  Austrahans  standing  behind  mounds  of  earth  with  their 
rifles  pointed  over  the  top,  bayonets  always  fixed.  Frequently, 
when  there  is  no  other  shelter  there  are  hastily  scooped  trenches, 
A  quarter  of  a  mile  away  another  party  is  lining  a  roadside,  flat 
on  their  stomachs  in  the  ditch,  bayonets  peeping  over  the  top. 
Shells  are  whizzing  by  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three  a  minute,  high 
explosives  bursting  on  contact  behind  their  backs  about  as  far 
away  as  the  other  side  of  a  cottage  parlor. 

PRISONER  AND  ESCORT. 

"Frequently  one  meets  a  prisoner  being  escorted  to  the 
rear.  There  is  something  very  Impressive  about  these  little  pro-i 
cessions  of  two  men,  prisoner  and  escort.  The  prisoner,  usually 
a  young  German  private  in  neat  gray  uniform  and  steel  helmet, 
walks  in  front.  After  him,  grasping  his  rifle  with  both  hands 
across  his  chest,  his  weatherbeaten  brows  puckered  as  he  picks 
his  way  over  the  tumbled  stones,  comes  the  living  embodiment 
of  the  Australian  back  comitry.  Nine  cases  out  of  ten,  some- 
how, the  soldier  who  escorts  a  prisoner  seems  to  be  that  bit  of 
pure  Australian,  either  Western  Australia  or  South  Australia, 
the  Warrego  or  the  Burdskin. 

"He  is  an  earnest  man,  intent  on  executing  his  errand  with 
dispatch  and  exactitude.  *Can  you  tell  me  the  way  to  head- 
quarters?' he  asks  as  he  passes.  Then  he  disappears  slowly  up 
the  street  on  the  heels  of  his  silent  companion. 

"These  Australians  are  just  as  good  fighters  in  this  new 
warfare  as  they  were  at  G  allipoli  or  in  the  trenches,  perhaps 
even  better.  They  had  their  first  encounter  with  German 
cavalry  the  other  day,  but  it  was  only  a  feint  at  a  flank  and 
lasted  but  a  fev/  minutes." 

"Australia  is  ambitious  5  some  might  even  say  self -centered, 
and  Germany  undoubtedly  made  the  mistake  of  considering 


396  THE  HEPwOIC  ANZAC. 

that  Australia  was  awaiting  a  chance  to  become  unfriendly  to 
Great  Britain  when  she  started  to  fight.  But  no  nation  ever 
made  a  greater  mistake.  As  soon  as  the  House  of  Hohenzol- 
lern  placed  the  mother  country  in  a  perilous  position  Australia 
was  at  the  command  of  Great  Britain.  Notvfithstanding  the 
fact  that  the  Australians  are  primarily  peace-loving,  most  in- 
tent on  attending  to  their  own  affairs,  the  response  to  the  call 
was  immediate  and  whole-hearted. 

AUSTRALIA'S  COMMENDABLE  PROMPTNESS. 

The  Australian  centers  buzzed  with  activity,  and  within 
two  months  after  war  was  declared  the  Austrahan  fleet,  which 
consisted  of  five  unarmored  cruisers,  tliree  torpedo-boat 
destroyers,  and  three  light  gunboats,  which  had  been  built  and 
manned  at  the  expense  of  the  Australians,  were  in  possession  of 
the  German  Pacific  Islands— Samoa,  Marshall,  Carolines, 
Pelew,  Ladrones,  New  Guinea,  New  Britain — ^Iiad  broken  the 
wireless  system  of  the  Germans,  and  had  captured  eleven  of  the 
vessels  of  Germany.  She  also  forced  twenty-five  other  ships 
to  intern,  and  prevented  the  destruction  of  a  British  ship  in 
Australian  waters. 

Then  came  the  scouring  of  the  seas  by  the  German  ship 
Emden,  and  her  trip  to  Australian  waters,  with  the  object  of 
carrying  on  the  work  of  destruction  which  had  marked  her 
career  in  South  American  waters.  She  lay  in  wait  for  Aus* 
tralian  transports,  with  the  result  that  the  Australian  warship 
Sydney  sent  her  to  the  bottom  but  three  months  after  war  had 
been  declared.  Shortly  after  this  the  Australian  fleet  drove 
von  Spree's  squadron  from  the  Pacific  directly  Into  the  trap  set 
by  Admiral  Sturdee  at  the  Falkland  Islands, 

The  fact  that  all  the  troops  of  Australia  must  be  trans- 
ported to  London — a  distance  via  the  Suez  route  of  approxi- 
mately 11,000  miles,  and  through  the  Panama  Canal  of  12,734 
miles — did  not  keep  back  these  brave  men  from  quicldy  enlist- 
ing.    The  great  distance  made  fighting  extremely  expensive, 


THE  HEROIC  ANZAC.  897 

but  the  task  was  loyally  assumed  by  the  military  of  the  far  con- 
tinent. Universal  military  service  was  inaugurated  for  the  first 
time  by  an  English-speaking  community,  and  war  loans  were 
offered  and  quickly  accepted.  Transports  were  immediately 
constructed  out  of  seventy  steamers  which  were  requisitioned. 
At  the  declaration  of  war  in  November,  1914,  the  entire 
Australian  army,  which  consisted  of  20,000  men,  left  Australia 
for  Egypt,  and  at  the  end  of  the  fii'st  year  of  the  conflict  there 
were  76,000  men  in  the  field.  By  July,  1916,  nearly  300,000 
volunteers  had  been  recruited  and  had  crossed  the  seas.  The 
creation,  equipment,  and  supplying  of  this  army  by  the  peopld 
of  Australia,  a  task  involving  enormous  cost  and  personal  sac- 
rifice, constitutes  a  thrilling  chapter  in  the  history  of  loyalty. 

GEOGRAPHICALLY  ALIKE. 

To  those  who  think  that  Australia  is  a  little  island  situated 
in  the  Pacific  ocean  it  might  be  interesting  to  know  that  this 
continent,  in  size  and  shape,  is  almost  the  exact  duplicate  of  the 
United  States.  There  are  also  outlying  provinces,  that  of 
Papua,  a  tropical  land,  offsetting  Alaska.  Then  there  is  the 
rich  little  Lord  Howe  Island,  and  Norfolk  Island.  The  sur- 
face of  Australia  is  the  most  level  in  surface  and  regular  in 
outline  of  all  the  continents,  and  is  the  lowest  continent,  with 
an  average  elevation  of  Ohio. 

There  are  2,974,581  square  miles  in  Australia,  while  the 
land  area  erf  the  Uluited  States  is  2,973,890  square  miles,  a  dif- 
ference of  691  square  miles.  This,  of  course,  is  only  the  con- 
tinental United  States.  Only  about  one-twentieth  of  the  total 
area  of  Australia  lies  in  a  latitude  farther  removed  from  the 
Equator  than  Chattanooga,  Tennessee ;  Clarendon,  Texas ;  and 
Albuquerque,  New  Mexico,  and  there  is  less  than  one-third  of 
the  area  of  this  unique  continent  which  lies  in  a  cooler  latitude 
than  the  sugar-cane  lands  of  Louisiana. 

The  streams  of  Australia  are  fewer  and  carry  less  water 
than  those  of  any  other  continent.     The  heart  of  this  grea^ 


39B  THE  HEROIC  ANZAC. 

island  is  dry  and  barren  and  thinly  populated.  Most  of  the 
inhabitants  are  found  within  easy  reach  of  the  coastUne.  The 
population  of  this  great  land,  at  the  census  of  1911,  was  4,568,- 
707  persons. 

New  Zealand  is  situated  a  little  more  than  1200  miles  to 
the  east  of  Sydney,  which  is  in  the  southeastern  section  of 
Australia.  It  consists  of  three  fairly  large  islands,  together 
with  a  number  of  small  adjacent  islands.  The  area  is  105,340 
square  miles,  the  population  being,  in  1911,  815,862.  The 
surface  of  the  principal  islands  is  diversified,  being  mountainous 
in  some  parts,  and  undulating  in  others.  The  best  harbors 
are  in  the  northern  district. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

AMEEICA  STEPS  IN. 

Pbesideb;t  WiLsoN^g  Famous  Message  to  Congress — ^The  Wab  Resolution— 
APEii  6,  1917  Sees  the  United  States  at  Wab— Review  of  the  Negotia- 
tions Between  Geemany  and  Amebica — ^The  U-Boat  Resteicted  Zone  An- 
nouncement of  Geemany— Peemiee  Lloyd  Geoege  on  Ameeica  in  the  Con- 
flict. 

THE  hoisting  of  the  American  flag  to  the  top  of  the  staff 
as  the  emblem  of  world-wide  Liberty  followed  the  action 
of  Congress  in  authorizing  President  Wilson  to  declare  a 
state  of  war  existed  between  Germany  and  the  United  States. 
What  the  conditions  were  which  developed  during  the  months 
in  which  Germany  to  all  intents  and  purposes  "laughed  up  her 
sleeve"  at  the  United  States,  ignored  our  protests  against  her 
wanton  disregard  of  human  rights  on  land  and  sea,  can  no  bet- 
ter be  told  than  in  the  words  of  President  Wilson  himself  in 
his  message  stating  the  position  which  the  Government  took. 

His  message  to  Congress  will  go  down  in  history,  not  only 
as  an  instrument  of  world-wide  importance,  but  as  a  classic  in 
literature.  Its  effect  on  the  Nations  was  greater  than  that  of 
any  other  message  issued  by  any  one  country,  probably  in  the 
history  of  the  world,  and  while  there  were  critics  who  regarded 
some  of  President  Wilson's  utterances  as  too  idealistic,  time 
proved  that  his  vision  was  greater  than  that  of  those  who  criti- 
cised him,  and  within  a  short  time  the  eyes  of  the  entire  world 
were  turned  toward  Washington,  which  became  the  active 
centre  from  which  the  campaign  for  world-wide  democracy  was 
waged. 

The  hands  of  Liberty  stretched  out  to  Russia,  Serbia, 
Italy,  France,  Belgium,  England,  little  Montenegro,  and  they 
were  given  help  in  the  most  critical  periods  of  their  careers. 
The  President's  message  was  presented  to  Congress  on  April 
3,  1917,  as  follows: 

"I  have  called  the  Congi-ess  into  extraordinary  session  he- 
rn 

399 


400  AMERICA  STEPS  IK 


cause  there  are  serious,  very  serious,  choices  of  policy  to  be 
made,  and  made  immediately,  which  it  was  neither  rieht  nor 
constitutionally  permissible  that  I  should  assume  the  responsi- 
bihty  of  makmg. 

"On  the  third  of  February  last  I  officially  laid  before  you 
the  extraordmary  announcement  of  the  Imperial  Geraian  Gov- 
ernment  that  on  and  after  the  first  day  of  February  it  was  its 
pmpose  to  put  aside  all  restraints  of  law  or  of  humanity  and 
use  Its  submarines  to  sink  every  vessel  that  sought  to  approach 
either  the  ports  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  or  the  western 
coasts  of  Europe  or  any  of  the  ports  controlled  by  the  enemies 
ot  Germany  within  the  Mediterranean. 

COMMANDERS  UNDER  RESTRAINT. 
"That  had  seemed  to  be  the  object  of  the  German  sub- 
marine  warfare  earlier  in  the  war,  but  since  April  of  last  year 
the  Imperial  Government  had  somewhat  restrained  the  com- 
manders of  Its  undersea  craft  in  conformity  with  its  promise 
then  given  to  us  that  passenger  boats  should  not  be  sunk  and 
that  due  warning  would  be  given  to  aU  other  vessels  which  its 
submarines  might  seek  to  destroy  when  no  resistance  was  of- 
lered  or  escape  attempted,  and  care  taken  that  their  crews  were 
given  at  least  a  fair  chance  to  save  their  lives  in  their  open  boats. 
The  precautions  taken  were  meager  and   haphazard 
enough,  as  was  proved  in  distressing  instance  after  instance  in 
the  progress  of  the  cruel  and  unmanly  business;  but  a  certain 
degree  of  restraint  was  observed. 

"The  new  policy  has  swept  every  restriction  aside.  Vessels 
of  every  kmd,  whatever  their  flag,  their  character,  their  cargo,' 
their  destination,  their  errand,  have  been  ruthlessly  sent  to  the 
bottom  without  warning  and  without  thought  of  help  or  mercy 
for  those  on  board,  the  vessels  of  friendly  neutrals  along  with 
those  of  belligerents. 

"Even  hospital  ships  and  ships  carrying  relief  to  the  sorely 
bereaved  and  stricken  people  of  Belgium,  though  the  lattej. 


AMERICA  STEPS  IK  401 

iwere  provided  with  safe-conduct  through  the  prescribed  areas 
by  the  German  Government  itself  and  were  distinguished  by 
unmistakable  marks  of  identity,  have  been  sunk  with  the  same 
reckless  lack  of  compassion  or  of  principle, 

"I  was  for  a  little  while  unable  to  believe  that  such  things 
would  in  fact  be  done  by  any  government  that  had  hitherto 
subscribed  to  the  humane  practices  of  civilized  nations.  Inter- 
national law  had  its  origin  in  the  attempt  to  set  up  some  law 
which  would  be  respected  and  observed  upon  the  seas,  where 
no  nation  had  the  right  of  domination  and  where  lay  the  free 
highways  of  the  world. 

"By  painful  stage  after  stage  has  that  law  been  built  up, 
with  meager  enough  results,  indeed,  after  all  was  accomplished 
that  could  be  accomplished,  but  always  with  a  clear  view,  at 
least,  of  what  the  heart  and  conscience  of  mankind  demanded. 
SWEEPS  RIGHT  ASIDE. 

"This  minimum  of  right  the  German  Government  has 
swept  aside  imder  the  plea  of  retaliation  and  necessity  and  be- 
cause it  had  no  weapons  which  it  could  use  at  sea  except  those 
which  it  IS  impossible  to  employ  as  it  is  employing  them  with- 
out throwing  to  the  winds  all  scruples  of  humanity  or  of  respect 
for  the  understandings  that  were  supposed  to  underlie  the  in- 
tercourse of  the  world. 

"I  am  not  now  thuiking  of  the  loss  of  property  involved, 
immense  arid  serious  as  this  is,  but  only  of  the  wanton  and 
wholesale  destruction  of  the  lives  of  noncombatants,  men, 
women  and  children,  engaged  in  pursuits  which  have  always, 
even  in  the  darkest  periods  of  modern  history,  been  deemed 
innocent  and  legitimate.  Property  can  be  paid  for;  the  lives 
of  peaceful  and  innocent  people  cannot  be. 

"The  present  German  submarine  warfare  against  com- 
merce is  a  warfare  against  mankind.  It  is  a  war  against  all 
nations.  American  ships  have  been  sunk,  American  lives  taken, 
in  ways  which  it  has  stirred  us  very  deeply  to  learn  of,  but  the 


402  "  AMERICA  STEPS  IN. 

ships  and  people  of  other  neutral  and  friendly  nations  Have 
been  sunk  and  overwhehned  in  the  waters  in  the  same  way. 
rhere  has  been  no  discrimination.  The  challenge  is  to  aU  man- 
kmd.^   Each  nation  must  decide  for  itself  how  it  will  meet  it. 

"The  choice  we  make  for  ourselves  must  be  made  with  a 
moderation  of  counsel  and  a  temperateness  of  judgment  be- 
fittmg  our  character  and  our  motives  as  a  nation.  "We  must 
put  excited  feeling  away.  Our  motive  will  not  be  revenge  or 
the  victorious  assertion  of  the  physical  might  of  the  nation,  but 
only  the  vmdication  of  human  right,  of  which  we  are  only  a 
smgle  champion. 

ARMED  NEUTRALITY  IMPRACTICABLE. 
"When  I  addressed  the  Congress  on  the  twenty-sixth  of 
February  last  I  thought  it  would  suffice  to  assert  om-  neutral 
rights  with  arms,  our  right  to  use  the  seas  against  unlawful 
interference,  our  right  to  keep  our  people  safe  against  unlaw- 
ful violence.  But  armed  neutrality,  it  now  appears,  is  imprac- 
ticable. 

"Because  submarines  are  in  effect  outlaws  when  used  as 
the  German  submarines  have  been  used  against  merchant  ship- 
pmg,  it  is  impossible  to  defend  ships  against  their  attacks  as 
the  law  of  nations  has  assumed  that  merchantmen  would  defend 
themselves  against  privateers  or  cruisers,  visible  craft  giving 
chase  upon  the  open  sea.  It  is  common  prudence  in  such  cir- 
cumstances, grim  necessity,  indeed,  to  endeavor  to  destroy  them 
before  they  have  shown  their  ovra  intention.  They  must  be 
dealt  with  upon  sight,  if  dealt  with  at  all. 

"The  German  Government  denies  the  right  of  neutrals 
to  use  arms  at  all  within  the  areas  of  the  sea  which  it  has  pro- 
scribed, even  in  the  defense  of  rights  which  no  modern  publicist 
has  ever  questioned  their  right  to  defend.  The  intimation  is 
conveyed  that  the  armed  guards  which  we  have  placed  on  our 
merchant  ships  will  be  treated  as  beyond  the  pale  of  law  and 
subject  to  be  dealt  with  as  pirates  would  be. 


AMERICA  STEPS  IN.  403 

"Armed  neutrality  is  ineffectual  enough  at  best;  in  such 
circumstances  and  in  the  face  of  such  pretensions  it  is  worse 
than  ineffectual;  it  is  likely  once  to  produce  what  it  was  meant 
to  prevent;  it  is  virtually  certain  to  draw  us  into  the  war  with- 
out either  the  rights  or  the  effectiveness  of  beUigerents. 

"There  is  one  choice  we  cannot  make,  we  are  incapable 
of  making;  we  will  not  choose  the  path  of  submission  and  suffer 
the  most  sacred  rights  of  our  nation  and  our  people  to  be 
ignored  or  violated.  The  wrongs  against  which  we  now  array 
ourselves  are  not  common  wrongs;  they  cut  to  the  very  roots 

of  human  life. 

A  CONSTITUTIONAL  DUTY. 

"With  a  profound  sense  of  the  solemn  and  even  tragical 
character  of  the  step  I  am  taking  and  of  the  grave  responsi- 
bilities which  it  involves,  but  in  unhesitating  obedience  to  what 
I  deem  my  constitutional  duty,  I  advise  that  the  Congress 
declare  the  recent  course  of  the  Imperial  German  Government 
to  be  in  fact  nothing  less  than  war  against  the  Government  and 
people  of  the  United  States;  that  it  formally  accept  the  status 
of  belligerent  which  has  thus  been  thrust  upon  it  and  that  it 
take  immediate  steps  not  only  to  put  the  country  in  a  more 
thorough  state  of  defense,  but  also  to  exert  all  its  power  and 
employ  all  its  resources  to  bring  the  Government  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire  to  terms  and  end  the  war. 

"What  this  will  involve  is  clear.  It  will  involve  the  utmost 
practicable  co-operation  in  counsel  and  action  with  the  Govern- 
ments now  at  war  with  Germany,  and  as  incident  to  that,  the 
extension  to  those  Governments  of  the  most  liberal  financial 
credits,  in  order  that  our  resources  may,  so  far  as  possible,^  be 
added  to  theirs.  It  will  involve  the  organization  and  mobiliza- 
tion of  aU  the  material  resources  of  the  country  to  supply  the 
material  of  war  and  serve  the  incidental  needs  of  the  nation  in 
the  most  abundant  and  yet  the  most  economical  and  efficient 
way  possible. 


"^^^  AMERICA  STEPS  IN.  f' 

"It  wiU  involve  the  immediate  full  equipment  of  the  navy 
m  aU  respects,  but  particularly  in  supplying  it  with  tiie  best 
means  of  dealmg  with  the  enemy's  submarines.  It  wffl  involve 
the  immediate  addition  to  the  armed  forces  of  the  United  States 
ah-eady  provided  for  by  law  in  case  of  war  at  least  500,000 
men,  who  should  in  my  opinion,  be  chosen  upon  the  principle 
of  muversal  labihty  to  service,  and  also  the  authorization  of 
subsequent  additional  increments  of  equal  force  so  soon  as  they 
may  be  needed  and  can  be  handled  in  training. 
WELL-CONCEIVED  TAXATION. 

^•71 "!?  'r"°^''^'  ^^'°'  °^  ''°"^'^'  t^^  arranting  of  adequate 
credits  to  the  Government,  sustained,  I  hope,  so  far  as  they  can 
equitably  be  sustained  by  the  present  generation,  by  weU-con- 
ceived  taxation.  I  say  sustained  so  far  as  may  be  equitably 
by  taxation  because  it  seems  to  me  that  it  would  be  most  unwis« 
to  base  the  credits  which  wiU  now  be  necessary  entirely  on 
money  borrowed.  It  is  our  duty,  I  most  respectfully  urge,  to 
protect  our  people  so  far  as  we  may  against  the  very  serious 
hardships  and  evils  which  would  be  likely  to  arise  out  of  the 
mflation  which  would  be  produced  by  vast  loans. 

"In  carrying  out  the  measures  by  which  these  things  are 
to  be  accomplished  we  should  keep  constantly  in  mind  the  wis- 
aomof  interfering  as  little  as  possible  in  our  own  preparation 
and  m  the  eqmpment  of  our  own  military  forces  with  the  duty 
-for  It  vnll  be  a  very  practical  duty— of  supplying  the  nations 
already  at  war  with  Germany  with  the  materials  which  they 
can  obtam  only  from  us  by  our  assistance.    They  are  in  the 
lield  and  we  should  help  them  in  every  way  to  be  effective  there. 
I  shaU  take  the  liberty  of  suggesting,  through  the  several 
executive  departments  of  the  Government,  for  the  considera- 
tion  of  your  committees  measures  for  the  accomplishment  of  the 
several  objects  I  have  mentioned.    I  hope  that  it  will  be  your 
pleasure  to  deal  with  them  as  having  been  framed  after  very 
careful  thought  by  the  branch  of  the  Government  upon  which 


AMERICA  STEPS  IK  405 

the  responsibility  of  conducting  the  war  and  safeguarding  the 
nation  will  most  directly  fall. 

*^While  we  do  these  things— these  deeply  momentous 
things— let  us  be  very  clear,  and  make  very  clear  to  all  the 
world,  what  our  motives  and  our  objects  are.  My  own  thought 
has  not  been  di^iven  from  its  habitual  and  normal  course  by  the 
unhappy  events  of  the  last  two  months,  and  I  do  not  believe 
that  the  thought  of  the  nation  has  been  altered  or  clouded  by 

them. 

FIRM  STAND  FOR  VINDICATION. 

"I  have  exactly  the  same  things  In  mind  now  that  I  had  in 
mind  when  I  addressed  the  Senate  on  the  twenty-second  of 
January  last;  the  same  that  I  had  in  mind  when  I  addressed 
the  Congress  on  the  third  of  February  and  on  the  twenty-sixth 
of  February.  Our  object  now,  as  then,  is  to  vindicate  the 
principles  of  peace  and  justice  in  the  life  of  the  world  against 
selfish  and  autocratic  power  and  to  set  up  among  the  really 
free  and  self -governed  peoples  of  the  world  such  a  concert  of 
purpose  and  action  as  will  henceforth  insure  the  observance  of 
those  principles. 

''Neutrality  is  no  longer  feasible  or  desirable  where  the 
peace  of  thq  world  is  involved  and  the  freedom  of  its  peoples 
and  the  menace  to  that  peace  and  freedom  lies  in  the  existence 
of  autocratic  governments  backed  by  organized  force  which  is 
controUed  wholly  by  their  will,  not  by  the  wiU  of  their  people. 
We  have  seen  the  last  of  neutrality  in  such  circumstances. 

*'We  are  at  the  beginning  of  an  age  in  which  it  will  be 
insisted  that  the  same  standards  of  conduct  and  of  responsi- 
bility for  wrongdoing  shall  be  obsei-^ed  among  nations  and 
their  Governm_ents  that  are  observed  among  the  individual 
citizens  of  civilized  States. 

"We  have  no  quarrel  with  the  CJerman  people.  We  Have 
no  feeling  toward  them  but  one  of  sympathy  and  friendship. 
It  was  not  upon  their  impulse  that  their  Government  acted  m 


406  AMERICA  STEPS  IN. 

entering  this  war.     It  was  not  with  their  previous  knowledge 
or  approval.  , 

"It  was  a  war  determined  upon  as  wars  used  to  be  deter- 
nuned  upon  in  the  old,  unhappy  days  when  peoples  were  no- 
where consulted  by  theii-  rulers  and  wars  were  provoked  and 
waged  in  the  interest  of  dynasties  or  of  little  groups  of  am- 
bitious men  who  were  accustomed  to  use  their  feUow-men  as 
pawns  and  tools. 

"Self-governed  nations  do  not  fill  their  neighbor  States 
with  spies,  or  set  the  course  of  intrigue  to  bring  about  some 
critical  posture  of  affairs  which  will  give  them  an  opportunity 
to  strike  and  make  conquest.  Such  designs  can  be  successfully 
worked  out  only  under  cover  and  where  no  one  has  the  right  to 
ask  questions. 

PRECONCEIVED  DECEPTION. 

"Cunningly  contrived  plans  of  deception  or  aggression 
carried  it  may  be  from  generation  to  generation,  can  be  worked 
out  and  kept  from  the  light  only  within  the  privacy  of  courts 
or  belimd  the  carefully  guarded  confidences  of  a  narrow,  privi- 
leged class.  They  are  happily  impossible  where  public  opinion 
commands  and  insists  upon  full  information  concerning  all  the 
nation's  affairs. 

"A  steadfast  concert  for  peace  can  never  be  maintained 
except  by  a  partnership  of  democratic  nations.  No  autocratic 
Government  could  be  trusted  to  keep  faith  within  it  or  observe 
itscovenants.  It  must  be  a  league  of  honor,  a  partnership  of 
opmion.  Intrigue  would  eat  its  vitals  away;  the  plotting  of 
inner  circles  who  could  plan  what  they  would  and  render  ac- 
count to  no  one  would  be  a  corruption  seated  at  its  very  heart. 
Only  free  peoples  can  hold  their  purpose  and  their  honor  steady 
to  a  common  end  and  prefer  the  interests  of  mankind  to  any 
narrow  interest  of  their  own. 

Does  not  every  American  feel  that  assurance  has  been 
gdded  to  our  hope  for  the  future  peace  of  the  world  by  the 


AMERICA  STEPS  IN.  407 

wonderful  and  heartening  things  that  have  been  happening 
within  the  last  few  weeks  in  Russia?  Russia  was  known  by 
those  who  know  it  best  to  have  been  always  in  fact  democratic 
at  heart  in  all  the  vital  habits  of  her  thought,  in  all  the  intimate 
relationships  of  her  people  that  spoke  their  natural  instinct, 
their  habitual  attitude  toward  life. 

POLITICAL  AUTOCRACY. 
"The  autocracy  that  crowned  the  summit  of  her  political 
structure,  long  as  it  had  stood  and  terrible  as  was  the  reality 
of  its  power,  was  not,  in  fact,  Russian  in  origin,  character  or 
purpose;  and  now  it  has  been  shaken  off  and  the  great,  gener- 
ous Russian  people  have  been  added  in  all  their  native  majesty 
and  might  to  the  forces  that  are  fighting  for  freedom  in  the 
world,  for  justice  and  for  peace.  Here  is  a  fit  partner  for  a 
league  of  honor. 

"One  of  the  things  that  Have  served  to  convince  us  that 
the  Prussian  autocracy  was  not  and  could  never  be  our  friend, 
is  that  from  the  very  outset  of  the  present  war  it  has  filled 
our  unsuspecting  communities  and  even  our  offices  of  Govern- 
ment with  spies  and  set  criminal  intrigues  everywhere  afoot 
against  our  national  unity  and  counsel,  our  peace  within  and 
without  our  industries  and  our  commerce. 

"Indeed,  it  is  now  evident  that  its  spies  were  here  even 
before  the  war  began;  and  it  is  unhappily  not  a  matter  of  con- 
jecture, but  a  fact  proved  in  our  courts  of  justice,  that  the 
intrigues  which  have  more  than  once  come  perilously  near  to 
disturbing  the  peace  and  dislocating  the  industries  of  the  coun- 
try have  been  carried  on  at  the  instigation,  with  the  support, 
and  even  under  the  personal  direction  of  official  agents  of  the 
Imperial  Government  accredited  to  the  Government  of  the 

United  States. 

"Even  in  checking  tHese  things  and  trying  to  extirpate 
them,  we  have  sought  to  put  the  most  generous  interpretation 
possible  upon  them  because  we  knew  that  their  source  lay,  not 


^^  AMEEICA  STEPS  IN. 

in  any  hostile  feeling  or  purpose  of  the  German  peopie  toward 
us  (who  were  no  doubt,  as  ignorant  of  them  as  we  ou^^dves 

whlt^-t  "  I "  ?'  ^f  ?^  "^'''^^  ''  ^  Govermnent  t"Sd 
what  It  pleased  and  told  its  people  nothing.  But  they  have 
played  thear  part  m  serving  to  convince  us  at  last  that  thi? 
Government  entertams  no  real  friendship  for  us  and  means  to 
act  agamst  our  peace  and  security  at  its  convenience.  That  it 
means  to  stir  up  enemies  against  us  at  our  very  doorsthe 

s^^fvid^r '''  ^~  ^^^^^-  -  ^-^-  ^ 

"We  are  accepting  this  chaUenge  of  hostile  purpose  be- 

mrod?  "  *''*  '^  ^"^^  *  Government,  following  such 
methods,  we  can  never  have  a  friend;  and  that  in  the  presence 
of  Its  orgamzed  power,  always  lying  in  wait  to  accomplish  we 
know  not  what  purpose,  there  can  be  no  assured  security  of  the 
democratic  Governments  of  the  world. 

NATURAL  FOE  TO  LIBERTY. 

naturlwoT  ,"7/'"''"^°  ^'''^^  ^^^^  of  battle  with  this 

power  W  ^"^^^^/^/^^^J^  f  d  ""JUfy  its  pretensions  and  its 
power.  We  are  glad,  now  that  we  see  the  facts  with  no  veil 
of  false  pretense  about  them,  to  fight  thus  for  the  ulWe 
peace  of  the  world  and  for  the  liberation  of  its  peoples  4e 
German  peoples  included;  for  the  rights  of  nationfgr  5 and 
smaU  and  the  privilege  of  men  everywhere  to  choosefheir  way 
de^  '  of  obedience.     The  world  must  be  made  safe  for 

democracy     Its  peace  must  be  planted  upon  the  tested  fomida. 
tions  ot  political  liberty. 

ouestT^^'"^'  •''°  'Ixf  '""^^  *°  '''^'-    ^«  3^«fre  no  con- 
mate;-.!  ™.   ^f  '''^  "°  indemnities  for  ourselves,  no 

material  compensation  for  the  sacrifices  we  shall  freely  m^ke. 

the  fS  ^'t''f^  J^'""  tho««  rights  have  been  as  secure  as 
the  faith  and  the  freedom  of  the  nations  can  make  them. 


AMERICA  STEPS  IN.  ^^ 

"Just  because  we  fight  without  rancour  and  without  selfish 
object,  seeking  nothing  for  ourselves  but  what  we  shaU  wish  to 
share  with  all  free  people,  we  shall,  I  feel  confident,  conduct 
our  operations  as  belligerents  without  passion  and  ourselves 
observe  with  proud  punctiho  the  principles  of  right  and  of  fair 
play  we  profess  to  be  fighting  for. 

UNDISGUISED  WARFARE. 

''I  have  said  nothing  of  the  Governments  allied  with  the 
Imperial  Government  of  Germany  because  they  have  not  made 
war  upon  us  or  challenged  us  to  defend  our  right  and  our  honor. 
The  Austro-Hungarian  Governm^ent  has,  indeed,  avowed  its 
imquahfied  indorsement  and  acceptance  of  the  reckless  and 
lawless  submarine  warfare  adopted  now  without  disguise  by 
the  Imperial  German  Government,  and  it  has,  therefore,  not 
been  possible  for  this  Government  to  receive  Count  Tarnowski, 
the  Ambassador  recently  accredited  to  this  Government  by  the 
Imperial  and  Koyal  Government  of  Austria-Hungary;  but 
that  Government  has  not  actually  engaged  in  warfare  agamst 
citizens  of  the  United  States  on  the  seas,  and  I  take  the  liberty, 
for  the  present  at  least,  of  postponing  a  discussion  of  our  rela- 
tions with  the  authorities  at  Vienna.     We  enter  this  war  only 
where  we  are  clearly  forced  into  it  because  there  are  no  other 
means  of  defending  our  rights. 

"It  will  be  all  the  easier  for  us  to  conduct  ourselves  as 
belligerents  in  a  high  spirit  of  right  and  fairness  because  we  act 
without  animus,  not  in  enmity  toward  a  people  or  with  the 
desire  to  bring  any  injury  or  disadvantage  upon  them,  but  only 
in  armed  opposition  to  an  irresponsible  Government  which  has 
thrown  aside  all  considerations  of  humanity  and  of  right  and 
is  running  amuck. 

"We  are,  let  me  say  again,  the  sincere  friends  of  the  Ger- 
man people,  and  shall  desire  nothing  so  much  as  the  early  re- 
establishment  of  intimate  relations  of  mutual  advantage  be- 

BJ  R— 22 


410  AMEEICA  STEPS  IN. 

tween  us,  however  hard  it  may  be  for  them,  for  the  time  being 
to  beheve  that  this  is  spoken  from  our  hearts. 

"We  have  borne  with  their  present  Government  through 
all  these  bitter  months  because  of  that  friendship,  exercising  a 
patience  and  forbearance  which  Avould  otherwise  have  been  im- 
possible. We  shall,  happily,  still  have  an  opportunity  to  prove 
that  friendship  in  our  daily  attitude  and  actions  toward  the 
millions  of  men  and  women  of  German  birth  and  native  sym- 
pathy who  live  among  us  and  share  our  life,  and  we  shall  be 
proud  to  prove  it  toward  all  who  are  in  fact  loyal  to  their  neigh- 
bors and  to  the  Government  in  the  hour  of  test. 
TRUE  AND  LOYAL  AMERICANS. 

•f  .u  "^u  ^I  ^'■^'  T'*  °^  *^^'^'  ^'  *™^  ^"^  loyal  Americans  as 
It  they  had  never  known  any  other  fealty  or  allegiance.  They 
will  be  prompt  to  stand  with  us  in  rebuking  and  restraming 
the  few  who  may  be  of  a  different  mmd  and  purpose. 

'tlf  there  should  be  disloyalty  it  will  be  dealt  with  with  a 
iirm  hand  of  stern  repression;  but  if  it  lifts  its  head  at  all  it 
wiU  hf  t  It  only  here  and  there,  and  without  countenance  except 
from  a  lawless  and  malignant  few. 

"It  is  a  distressing  and  oppressive  dutj^  gentlemen  of  the 
Congress,  which  I  have  performed  in  thus  addressing  you. 
There  are,  it  may  be,  many  months  of  fiery  trial  and  sacrifice 
ahead  of  us.  It  is  a  fearful  thing  to  lead  this  great,  peaceful 
people  into  war— into  the  most  terrible  and  disastrous  of  all 
wars,  civilization  itself  seeming  to  be  in  the  balance. 

"But  the  right  is  more  precious  than  peace,  and  we  shall 
%ht  for  the  things  which  we  have  always  carried  nearest  our 
hearts— for  democracy,  for  the  right  of  those  who  submit  to 
authority  to  have  a  voice  in  their  own  government,  for  the 
rights  and  liberties  of  small  nations,  for  a  universal  dominion 
of  right  by  such  a  concert  of  free  peoples  as  shall  brmg  peace 
and  safety  to  all  nations  and  make  the  world  itself  at  last  free. 

"To  such  a  task  we  can  dedicate  our  lives  and  our  fortunes. 


AMERICA  STEPS  IN.  411 

everything  that  we  are  and  everything  that  we  have,  with  the 
pride  of  those  who  know  that  the  day  has  come  when  America 
is  privileged  to  spend  her  blood  and  her  might  for  the  princi- 
pies  that  gave  her  birth  and  happiness  and  the  peace  which 
she  has  treasured.  God  helping  her,  she  can  do  no  other." 

While  all  the  world  knew  that  an  actual  state  of  war  had 
existed  between  the  two  countries  for  months,  the  resolution 
declaring  war  as  adopted  by  Congress  on  the  plea  of  Presi- 
dent Wilson  and  signed  by  the  President  shortly  after  1  o'clock 
on  the  afternoon  of  April  6,  1917— Good  Friday— was  as  fol- 
lows: 

"Whereas,  The  Imperial  German  Government  has  com- 
mitted repeated  acts  of  war  against  the  government  and  the 
people  of  the  United  States  of  America;  therefore,  be  it 
A  WAR  RESOLUTION. 
"Resolved,  By  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
of  the  United  States  of  America,  in  Congress  assembled,  that 
the  state  of  war  between»the  United  States  and  the  Imperial 
German  Government  which  has  thus  been  thrust  upon  the 
United  States  is  hereby  formally  declared;  and  that  the  Presi- 
dent be,  and  he  is  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to  employ 
the  entire  naval  and  military  forces  of  the  United  States  and 
the  resources  of  the  government  to  carry  on  war  against  the 
Imperial  German  Government;  and  to  bring  the  conflict  to  a 
successful  termination  all  of  the  resources  of  the  country  are 
hereby  pledged  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States." 

Immediately  President  Wilson  issued  a  proclamation  in 
which  he  called  upon  the  people  of  the  country  to  co-operate 
and  give  their  support,  pointing  out  the  necessity  for  doing 
things  other  than  putting  men  upon  the  firing  line.  And  in 
his  brief  proclamation  he  outlined  the  entire  comprehensive 
plan  which,  within  a  few  months,  was  well  under  way. 

The  placing  of  the  navy  upon  a  war  footing;  the  creating 


^^^  AMEEICA  STEPS  IN. 

and  equipping  of  an  adequate  army;  the  supplying  of  ships; 
creating  of  loans;  the  financing  of  the  Allies;  the  conservation 
of  food  products;  the  development  of  food  and  material  re- 
sources; the  providing  of  munitions  and  suppHes  for  the  fight- 
ing forces  abroad— all  of  these  things  were  pointed  to  as  neces- 
sary in  the  President's  proclamation. 

^  Thus  America,  which  had  endeavored  to  remain  neutral 
during  months  when  Germany  was  arrogant  and  insulting,  be- 
came aligned  with  the  Alhes  in  the  struggle  which  for  nearly 
three  years  had  been  waged  in  Europe. 

NEGOTIATIONS  CARRIED  ON. 
The  negotiations  between  this  coimtry  and  Germany 
over  the  question  of  submarine  warfare  as  affecting  the  lives 
of  non-combatants  and  the  rights  of  neutrals  on  the  high  seas 
in  time  of  war  had  been  carried  on  for  two  years.  They  had 
their  origin  on  February  10,  1915,  when,  following  the  Ger- 
man announcement  of  February  4  that  "the  waters  around 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  including  the  whole  Enghsh  Chan- 
nel, are  declared  a  war  zone  on  and  after  February  18,  1915,'* 
William  J.  Bryan,  then  Secretary  of  State,  sent  the  "strict 
accountability"  note  to  Berlin. 

Through  successive  stages  the  exchange  of  diplomatic 
papers  continued,  with  growing  feeling  on  both  sides,  because 
of  the  acts  of  Germto  submarines,  until  the  torpedoing  of  the 
cross-Channel  steamer  Sussex,  on  March  24,  1916,  when  the 
lives  of  twenty-five  American  citizens  were  imperiled  and  sev- 
eral  suffered  bodily  injuries  or  shock.  This  attack  resulted  in 
the  "Sussex  note,"  or  so-called  "ultimatum"  to  Germany. 

The  Sussex  note,  signed  by  Secretary  Lansing,  and  sent 
to  Germany  April  19,  1916,  concluded  with  the  following 
declaration : 

"Unless  the  Imperial  Government  should  now  imme- 
diately declare  and  effect  an  abandonment  of  its  present  meth- 
ods of  submarine  warfare  against  passenger  and  freight-carry^* 


AMERICA  STEPS  IN.  413 

ing  vessels,  the  Government  of  the  United  States  can  have  no 
choice  but  to  sever  diplomatic  relations  with  the  German  Em- 
pire altogether." 

QUESTIONS  GERMANY'S  RIGHT. 

The  first  American  note  to  the  Imperial  Government,  of 
February  10,  1915,  disputed  the  right  of  Germany  to  declare 
such  a  war  zone  as  it  had  announced  the  week  before,  and  con- 
tended for  the  international  procedure  of  "visit  and  search 
before  attack  on  or  capture  of  a  neutral  vessel.  It  embodied 

this  phrase:  ,,      .      /        ,.      a^ 

"If  such  a  deplorable  situation  should  arise  (wanton  de- 
struction of  an  American  ship)  the  Imperial  German  Govern- 
ment can  readily  appreciate  that  the  Government  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  would  be  constrained  to  hold  the  Imperial  German 
Government  to  a  strict  accountability  for  such  acts  of  their 
naval  authorities  and  to  take  any  steps  it  might  be  necessary 
to  take  to  safeguard  American  lives  and  property  and  to  se- 
cm-e  to  Americans  the  full  enjoyment  of  their  acknowledged 

rights  on  the  high  seas."  i        j      j„<.^ 

In  reply  the  German  Government  sent  a  note  under  date 
of  February  16,  1915,  setting  forth  that  the  war  zone  procla- 
mation was  in  reprisal  for  the  "blockade"  of  Great  Britam  and 
that  if  "at  the  eleventh  hour"  the  United  States  should  prevail 
upon  Germany's  enemies  to  abandon  their  methods  of  mari- 
time warfare,  Germany  would  modify  its  order.  It  charged 
misuse  of  neutral  flags  and  the  arming  of  merchant  ships  by 

Great  Britain. 

On  February  20,  in  an  identic  note  to  Germany  and  Great 
Britain,  the  American  Government  suggested  that  both  Powers 
cease  their  illegal  activities.  Such  an  agreement  this  Govern- 
ment proposed  as  a  "modus  vivendi"  giving  opportunity  for 
further  discussion  of  the  pomts  in  controversy.  Berlm  accepted 
this  note  as  "new  evidence  of  the  friendly  feehngs  of  the  Amer- 
ican Government,"  but  reserved  a  "definite  statement"  of  the 


41^  AMERICA  STEPS  IN. 

position  of  the  Imperial  Government  until  it  learned  "what 
obligations  the  British  Government  are  on  their  part  wilhn^  to 
assume."  ^ 

Subsequently,  on  March  28,  the  British  steamship  Falaba 
was  sunk,  with  the  loss  of  163  lives,  including  one  American. 
On  April  28  the  American  steamship  Gushing  was  attacked  by 
an  aeroplane,  and  on  May  1  the  American  tanker  Gulilight  was 
attacked  by  a  submarine  and  three  United  States  citizens  were 
lost. 

On  May  1,  also,  the  German  Embassy  at  Washington 
caused  to  be  inserted  in  many  of  the  leading  American  news- 
papers the  now  famous  advertisement  warning  Americans  and 
others  from  taking  passage  on  the  C.unard  liner  Lusitania, 
mtimatmg  that  it  would  be  attacked.  This  was  the  day  the 
Lusitania  sailed  on  her  ill-fated  voyage.  A  number  of  the 
prominent  passengers  received  personal  notes  when  they 
reached  the  pier,  advising  them  not  to  go,  but  most  of  them 
scouted  the  thought  of  danger. 

SUBMARINE   ISSUE  AND  DIPLOMACY. 
After  the  sinking  of  the  Lusitania,  on  May  7,  off  Fastnet, 
Ireland,  with  the  loss  of  more  than  1100  persons,  among  them' 
115  Americans,  the  submarine  issue  assumed  a  large  and 
gravely  important  place  in  the  reahn  of  diplomacy. 

^  The  accumulation  of  cases  affecting  Americans  was  taken 
up  in  the  first  "Lusitania  note"  to  Germany,  which  was  dis- 
patched May  15,  1915.  It  characterized  the  attacks  on  the 
Falaba,  Gushing,  Gulflight  and  Lusitania  as  ''a  series  of  events 
which  the  United  States  has  observed  with  growing  concern, 
distress  and  amazement."  It  pointed  to  Germany's  hitherto 
expressed  "humane  and  enlightened  attitude"  in  matters  of 
international  right,  and  expressed  the  hope  that  submarine 
commanders  engaged  in  torpedoing  peaceful  ships  without 
warning  were  in  such  practice  operating  without  the  sanction 
of  their  Governmnet.  The  note  closed  with  these  words: 


AMERICA  STEPS  IN.  415 

^'The  Imperial  German  Government  will  not  expect  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  to  omit  any  word  or  act 
necessary  to  the  performance  of  its  sacred  duty  of  maintaining 
tiie  rights  of  the  United  States  and  its  citizens  and  of  safeguard- 
ing their  free  exercise  and  enjoyment.'' 

On  May  28, 1915,  Germany  replied  with  a  note  which  cov- 
ered a  wide  range  of  argument  and  was  in  every  respect  unsatis- 
factory. It  alleged  that  the  Lusitania  had  masked  guns  aboard ; 
that  she  in  effect  was  a  British  auxihary  cruiser ;  that  she  carried 
munitions  of  war;  that  her  owning  company,  aware  of  the  dam» 
ages  she  risked  in  the  submarine  war  zone,  was  in  reality  respon- 
sible for  the  loss  of  American  lives,  and  referred  to  the  text 
that  the  British  Admu-alty  had  offered  large  rewards  to  ship 
captains  who  rammed  or  destroyed  submarines. 
PROMISED  TO  PAY  DAMAGES. 
The  note  met  none  of  the  contentions  of  the  United  States 
so  far  as  the  Lusitania  and  Falaba  incidents  were  concerned, 
although  a  supplementary  note  did  acknowledge  that  Germany 
was  wrong  in  the  attacks  on  the  Gushing  and  the  Gulflight, 
expressed  regret  for  these  two  cases  and  promised  to  pay  dam- 
ages.   While  the  American  reply  to  the  note  was  being  framed 
dissension  in  the  Cabinet  resulted  in  the  resignation  of  Secre- 
tary Bryan,  who  contended  for  a  policy  of  warning  Americans 
off  belUgerent  ships.  He  resigned  because  he  thought  he  could 
not  sign  the  next  note  to  Germany,  which  he  feared  would  lead 
the  United  States  into  war. 

Meanwhile  several  sensational  incidents  cropped  up  in  con- 
nection with  the  negotiations,  chief  of  which  was  the  sending  of 
a  message  to  the  Berlin  Foreign  Office  by  Doctor  Dumba,  the 
Austrian  Ambassador,  afterward  recalled  at  the  request  of 
President  Wilson,  which  was  represented  as  stating  substan- 
tially that  Mr.  Bryan  had  intimated  to  the  Ambassador  that 
the  vigorous  tone  of  the  American  notes  should  not  be  regarded 
in  Berlin  as  too  warlike. 


416  AMEKICA  STEPS  IN. 

Secretary  Lansing  took  office  as  Mr.  Bryan's  successor, 
and  his  reply  to  the  German  note  took  issue  with  every  conten- 
tion Germany  had  set  up  in  the  Falaba  and  Liisitania  cases, 
denied  flatly  the  contention  that  the  Lusitania  was  armed  or 
was  to  be  treated  as  other  than  a  peaceful  merchant  ship. 

The  note  averred  that  the  declaration  of  a  submarine  war 
zone  could  not  abbreviate  the  rights  of  Americans  on  lawful 
journeys,  and  added:  **The  Government  of  the  United  States 
therefore  very  earnestly  and  solemnly  renews  the  representa- 
tions of  its  note  transmitted  to  the  Imperial  German  Gov- 
ernment on  May  15,  and  relies  m  these  representations  upon 
the  principles  of  humanity,  the  universally  recognized  under- 
standings of  international  law  and  the  ancient  friendship  of 
the  German  nation." 

JAGOW'S  EVASIVE  ANSWER, 
To  that  note  Germany  did  not  reply  until  July  8,  and 
the  German  rejoinder  was  preponderate^  characterized  by 
American  newspapers  not  as  a  note,  but  as  an  address  by  For- 
eign Minister  von  Jagow  to  the  American  people.  In  official 
circles  it  was  said  to  come  no  nearer  to  meeting  the  American 
contentions  than  did  the  former  German  note. 

The  nature  of  the  reply  was  regarded  officially  as  con- 
vincing evidence  that  Germany  was  holding  the  submarine  war- 
fare negotiations  as  a  club  over  the  United  States  to  force 
this  Government  into  some  action  to  compel  Great  Britain  to 
relax  the  food  blockade.  President  Wilson  steadfastly  refused 
to  permit  the  diplomatic  negotiations  of  the  United  States 
with  one  belligerent  to  become  entangled  with  the  relations  with 
another. 

To  that  the  United  States  replied  on  July  21  that  the 
German  note  was  "very  unsatisfactory,"  because  it  failed  to 
meet  "the  real  differences  between  the  two  Governments."  The 
United  States,  it  declared,  was  keenly  disappointed  with  Ger- 
many's attitude.    Submarine  attacks  without  warning,  endan- 


AMERICA  STEPS  IN.  41T 

gering  Americans  and  other  neutrals,  were  characterized  as 
illegal  and  inliuman  and  manifestly  indefensible.  The  German 
retaliation  against  the  British  blockade,  it  maintained,  must 
not  interfere  with  the  rights  of  neutrals,  which  the  note  declared 
were  * 'based  upon  principles,  not  expediency,  and  the  prin- 
ciples are  immutable."  It  declared  that  the  United  States 
would  continue  to  contend  for  the  freedom  of  the  seas  "from 
whatever  quarter  violated,  without  compromise  and  at  any 
cost."  The  American  note  concluded  with  these  words  pi 
warning : 

'Triendship  itself  prompts  it  (the  United  States  Govern- 
ment) to  say  to  the  Imperial  Government  that  repetition  by 
the  commanders  of  German  naval  vessels  of  acts  in  contra- 
vention of  those  rights  must  be  regarded  by  the  Government 
of  the  United  States,  when  they  affect  American  citizens,  as 
deliberately  unfriendly." 

'INFORMAL  CONVERSATIONS." 

The  negotiations  at  this  point  seemed  to  have  come  to 
such  an  impasse  that  the  exchanges  of  notes  between  Washing- 
ton and  Berlin  were  stopped  and  the  controversy  was  brought 
into  the  reahn  of  ^'informal  conversations"  between  Secretary 
Lansing  and  Count  von  Bernstorff,  the  German  Ambassador. 
It  was  thought  that  much  could  be  accomplished  by  personal 
contact  which  was  lost  in  a  cold  exchange  of  documents. 

IMeanvfhile  the  Arabic  was  sunk  on  August  19.  Coming 
close  on  the  unsuccessful  Lusitania  negotiations  and  a  continu- 
ation of  submarine  attacks  in  which  Americans  had  suffered, 
it  seemed  that  the  United  States  and  Germany  had  at  last 
reached  the  point  of  a  break.  Then,  on  September  1,  came 
the  first  rift  in  the  threatening  situation.  Count  von  Bern- 
storiSF  presented  this  written  assurance  to  Secretary  Lansing: 

*Xiners  will  not  be  sunk  by  our  submarines  without  warn- 
ing and  without  safety  of  noncombatants,  provided  that  the 
liners  do  not  try  to  escape  or  offer  resistance." 


418  AMERICA  STEPS  IN. 

The  United  States  had  agreed  aU  along  that  ships  hailed 
for  visit  and  search  by  a  war  vessel  took  a  risk  if  they  attempted 
to  flee,  but  it  contended  not  for  the  safety  of  "liners"  alone, 
but  for  the  immunity  of  all  peaceful  merchant  vessels.  The 
word  "liners"  was  the  perplexing  point  in  Germany's  assur- 
ances and  a  complete  agreement  on  what  it  actually  meant 
never  was  finally  reached. 

More  hopefulness  was  added  to  the  situation  when,  on 
October  5,  the  Arabic  case  was  disposed  of  by  Germany  dis- 
avowing the  sinking  and  giving  renewed  assurances  that  sub- 
marine commanders  had  been  again  instructed  to  avoid  repeti- 
tion of  the  acts  which  provoked  American  condemnation. 
Count  von  Bernstorff  delivered  to  Secretary  Lansing  this  com- 
munication : 

BERNSTORFF'S   COMMUNICATION. 

"The  orders  issued  by  his  Majesty  the  Emperor  to  the 
commanders  of  submarines — of  which  I  notified  you  on  a 
previous  occasion — ^have  been  made  so  stringent  that  the  re- 
currence of  incidents  similar  to  the  Arabic  case  is  considered 
out  of  the  question.  The  Imperial  Government  regrets  and  dis- 
avows this  act  and  has  notified  Commander  Schneider  accord- 
ingly." 

With  that  the  negotiations  reverted  to  the  Lusitania  case. 
Germany  already  had  agreed  to  pay  indemnity  for  American 
lives  lost,  but  the  negotiations  were  delayed  by  a  seeming  dead- 
lock over  the  words  in  which  Germany  should  acknowledge  the 
illegality  of  the  destruction  of  the  liner.  Germany,  unwilling  to 
use  the  word  "illegal,"  substituted  a  declaration  that  "reprisals 
must  not  be  directed  at  others  than  enemy  subjects."  A  formal 
communication,  including  such  a  declaration  and  expressing  re- 
gret for  loss  of  American  lives,  assuming  liabiUty  and  offering 
reparation  in  the  form  of  indemnity,  was  submitted  to  Secretary 
Lansing. 

A  favorable  settlement  of  the  long  and  threatened  con- 


AMERICA  STEPS  IN.  419 

troversy  seemed  to  be  in  sight  when  all  the  progress  that  had 
been  made  was  reduced  to  nothing  by  Germany's  declaration  of 
a  new  submarine  policy  of  sinking  without  warning  all  armed 
merchant  ships.  That  precipitated  a  new  situation  so  vitally 
interwoven  with  the  whole  structure  of  the  Lusitania  case  that 
President  Wilson  declined  to  close  the  Lusitania  settlement 
while  the  other  issue  was  pending,  and  there  the  whole  matter 
rested  while  German  submarine  warfare  was  contained  and  new 
cases  involving  loss  of  American  lives  piled  up. 

Finally  the  accumulation  of  evidence  reached  such  propor- 
tions with  the  torpedoing  of  the  Sussex  that  President  Wilson, 
convinced  that  assurances  given  in  the  Lusitania  and  Arabic 
cases  were  being  violated,  dispatched  another  note  to  Ger- 
many, and  went  before  Congress,  review^ed  the  entire  situation 
from  the  beginning,  and  made  this  declaration : 
PRESIDENT'S  DECLARATION. 

*'I  have  deemed  it  my  duty  to  say  to  the  Imperial  German 
Government  that  if  it  is  still  its  purpose  to  prosecute  relentless 
and  indiscriminate  warfare  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  is  at  last  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  only  one 
course  it  can  pursue;  and  that,  unless  the  Imperial  German 
Government  should  now,  immediately,  declare  and  effect  an 
abandonment  of  its  present  methods  of  warfare  against  pas- 
senger and  freight-carrying  vessels  this  Government  can  have 
no  choice  but  to  sever  diplomatic  relations  altogether." 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  President  went  further  than 
"liners,"  and  said  "passenger  and  freight-carrying  vessels." 

In  the  note  sent  at  this  time  the  President  said : 

"No  Hmit  of  any  kind  has  in  fact  been  set  to  the  indis- 
criminate pursuit  and  destruction  of  merchantmen  of  all  kinds 
and  nationahties  within  the  waters  constantly  extending  in 
area  where  these  operations  have  been  carried  on,  and  the  roll 
of  Americans  who  have  lost  their  lives  on  ships  thus  attacked 
and  destroyed  has  grown  month  by  month  until  the  ominous 


420  AMERICA  STEPS  IN. 

toll  has  mounted  into  the  hundreds.  Again  and  again  the  Im- 
perial German  Government  has  given  this  Government  its 
solemn  assurances  that  at  least  jjassenger  ships  would  not  be 
thus  dealt  with,  and  yet  it  has  again  and  again  permitted  its 
undersea  commanders  to  disregard  those  assurances  with  entire 
impunity." 

OPPOSED  TO   SUBMARINE   WARFARE. 

During  all  the  negotiations  the  Berlin  Foreign  OfEce 
looked  to  Count  von  Bernstorif  to  prevent  a  break.  His  atti- 
tude was  represented  as  propitiatory  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
United  States  and  opposed  to  the  submarine  warfare  of  Von 
Tirpitz.  On  several  occasions  he  is  said  to  have  warned  his 
Emperor  personally  that  a  continuance  of  the  warfare  against 
which  the  United  States  protested  would  surely  lead  to  a 
break.  Meanwhile  the  Ambassador's  own  position  was  embar- 
rassed by  the  operations  of  German  sympathizers  in  the  United 
States  plotting  against  American  neutrality.  Some  of  these 
operations  were  traced  directly  to  the  military  and  naval  at- 
taches of  the  embassy,  who  were  withdrawn. 

Germany's  final  note  in  the  Sussex  case,  received  in  Wash- 
ington on  May  5,  said  that  "the  German  naval  forces  have  re- 
ceived the  following  order" : 

"In  accordance  with  the  general  principles  of  visit  and 
search  and  the  destruction  of  merchant  vessels  recognized  by 
international  law,  such  vessels,  both  within  and  without  the 
area  declared  a  naval  war  zone,  shall  not  be  sunk  without  warn- 
ing and  without  saving  human  lives,  unless  the  ship  attempts 
to  escape  or  offers  resistance." 

Contending  that  the  Imperial  Government  was  unwilling 
to  restrict  an  effective  weapon  if  "the  enemy  is  permitted  to 
apply  at  ^vill  methods  of  warfare  violating  the  rules  of  inter- 
national law,"  the  note  expressed  the  hope  that  the  United 
States  would  "demand  and  insist  that  the  British  Government 


AMERICA  STEPS  IN.  421 

shall  observe  forthwith  the  rules  of  international  law,"  The 
communication  added : 

"Should  the  steps  taken  by  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  not  attain  the  object  it  (the  German  Government)  de- 
sires, to  have  the  laws  of  humanity  followed  by  all  belligerent 
nations,  the  German  Government  would  then  be  facing  a  new 
situation  in  which  it  must  reserve  to  itself  complete  liberty  of 
decision." 

To  any  such  reservations  the  United  States  demurred  in 
no  uncertain  terms. 

PRESIDENT  WILSON'S  REPLY. 

"The  United  States  feels  it  necessary  to  state,"  said  Presi- 
dent Wilson's  reply,  "that  it  takes  it  for  granted  that  the  Im- 
perial German  Government  does  not  intend  to  imply  that  the 
maintenance  of  its  newly  announced  pohcy  is  any  way  contin- 
gent upon  the  course  or  result  of  diplomatic  negotiations  be- 
tween the  Governmxent  of  the  United  States  and  any  other 
belligerent  Government,  notvrfthstanding  the  fact  that  certain 
passages  in  the  Imperial  Government's  note  might  appear  to  be 
susceptible  of  that  construction." 

In  completing  the  declaration  that  there  must  be  no  mis- 
understanding that  rights  of  American  citizens  must  not  be 
made  subject  to  the  conduct  of  some  other  Government,  the 
note  concluded  by  saying:  "Responsibility  in  such  matters  is 
single,  not  joint;  absolute,  not  relative." 

The  climax  came  on  February  1,  1917,  when  Count  von 
Eernstorff,  German  Ambassador  at  Washington,  handed  to 
Secretary  Lansing  a  note  from  Germany  on  the  U-boat  policy, 
supplemented  by  the  "order"  and  declaration  that  the  Imperial 
Government  proposed  to  stop  sea  traffic  in  the  "zones"  which  it 
marked  as  prohibited,  by  every  means  at  its  command.  This  is 
the  restricted  zone  order: 

"From  February  1,  1917,  sea  traffic  will  be  stopped  with 
every  available  weapon  and  without  further  notice  in  the  fol- 


422 


AMEMCA  STEPS  IN. 


lowing  blockade  zones  around  Great  Britam,  France,  Italy  and 
in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean. 

"In  the  North:  The  zone  is  confined  by  a  line  at  a  distance 
of  twenty  sea  miles  along  the  Dutch  coast  to  Terschelling  fire- 
ship,  the  degree  of  longitude  from  Terschelling  fireship  to 
Udsire  (Norway),  a  line  from  there  across,  the  point  62  de- 


/->^;ri■^-/;VCi 


U.  S.  SfJiPS 


THE  BLOCKADE  ZONES. 


grees  north  0  degrees  longitude  to  62  degrees  north  5  degrees 
west,  further  to  a  point  three  sea  miles  south  of  the  southern 
point  of  the  Farve  (Faroe?)  Islands,  from  there  across  a  point 
62  degrees  north  10  degrees  west  to  61  degrees  north  15  degrees 
west,  then  57  degrees  north  20  degrees  west  to  47  degrees  north 
20  degrees  west,  further  to  43  degrees  north,  15  degrees  west. 


J 


AMEKICA  STEPS  IN.  428 

then  along  the  degree  of  latitude  43  degrees  north  to  20  sea 
miles  from  Cape  Finisterre  and  at  a  distance  of  20  sea  miles 
along  the  north  coast  of  Spain  to  the  French  bomidary. 

"In  the  south  (Mediterranean) : 

"For  neutral  shii3s  remains  open :  The  sea  west  of  the  line 
Pt  des'  Espiquette  to  88  degrees  20  minutes  north  and  6  de- 
grees east,  also  north  and  west  of  a  zone  61  sea  miles  wide  along 
the  North  African  coast,  beginning  at  2  degrees  longitude  west. 
For  the  connection  of  this  sea  zone  with  Greece  there  is  provided 
a  zone  of  a  width  of  20  sea  miles  north  and  east  of  the  following 
line :  38  degrees  north  and  6  degrees  east  to  38  degrees  north 
and  10  degrees  west  to  37  degrees  north  and  11  degrees  30 
minutes  east  to  34  degrees  north  and  22  degrees  30  minutes 
east.  From  there  leads  a  zone  20  sea  miles  wide  west  of  22  de- 
grees 30  minutes  eastern  longitude  into  Greek  territorial 
waters. 

NEUTRAL  SHIPS'  RISK. 

"Neutral  ships  navigating  these  blockade  zones  do  so  at 
their  own  risk.  Although  care  has  been  taken  that  neutral  ships 
which  are  on  their  way  toward  ports  of  the  blockade  zones  on 
February  1,  1917,  and  which  have  come  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
latter,  will  be  spared  during  a  sufSciently  long  period,  it  is 
strongly  advised  to  warn  them  with  all  available  means  in  order 
to  cause  their  return. 

"Neutral  ships  which  on  February  1  are  in  ports  of  the 
blockade  zones  can  with  the  same  safety  leave  them. 

'The  instructions  given  to  the  commanders  of  German  sub- 
marines provide  for  a  sufficiently  long  period  during  which  the 
safety  of  passengers  on  unarmed  enemy  passenger  ships  is 
guaranteed. 

"Americans  en  route  to  the  blockade  zone  on  enemy  freight 
steamships  are  not  endangered,  as  the  enemy  shipping  &ms 
can  prevent  such  ships  in  time  from  entering  the  zone. 


424  AMERICA  STEPS  IN. 

^'Sailing  of  regular  American  passenger  steamships  mayi 
continue  undisturbed  after  February  1, 1917,  if 

''  (a)^    The  port  of  destination  is  Falmouth. 

**  (b)  Sailing  to  or  coming  from  that  port  course  is  taken 
via  the  Scilly  Islands  and  a  point  50  degrees  north,  20  degrees 
vWest. 

"(c)"  The  steamships  are  marked  in  the  following  way, 
which  must  not  be  allowed  to  other  vessels  in  American  ports : 
On  ship's  hull  and  superstructure  three  vertical  stripes  one 
meter  wide  each  to  be  painted  alternately  white  and  red.  Each 
mast  should  show  a  large  flag  checkered  white  and  red  and  the 
stern  the  American  national  flag.  Care  should  be  taken  that 
during  dark  national  flag  and  painted  marks  are  easily  recog- 
nizable from  a  distance,  and  that  the  boats  are  well  lighted 
throughout. 

*^(d)  One  steamship  a  week  sails  in  each  direction,  with 
arrival  at  Falmouth  on  Sunday  and  departure  from  Falmouth 
on  Wednesday. 

"  (e)  United  States  Govermnent  guarantees  that  no  con- 
traband (according  to  German  contraband  list)  is  carried  by 
those  steamshipse" 

Immediately  after  the  signing  of  the  Congressional  reso- 
lution declaring  America  at  war,  President  Wilson  ordered  the 
mobilization  of  the  United  States  Navy,  and  the  Senate  voted 
an  emergency  war  fund  of  $100,000,000  for  the  use  of  the 
President.  The  forces  of  the  United  States  on  land  and  sea  and 
in  every  coimtry  under  the  sun  were  notified  that  a  state  of  war 
existed. 

The  entrance  of  America  was  regarded  throughout  the 
world  as  one  of  the  most  significant  moves  in  the  history  of 
nations,  and  it  filled  the  Allied  forces  with  enthusiasm.  Typical 
of  the  expressions  on  the  part  of  the  representatives  of  the 
Governments  at  war  with  Germany  was  that  of  Lloyd  George, 
Premier  of  England,  who  said: 


AMERICA  STEPS  IN.  425 

^'America  has  at  one  bound  become  a  world  power  in  a 
jsense  she  never  was  before.  She  waited  until  she  found  a  cause 
worthy  of  her  traditions.  The  American  people  held  back 
until  they  were  fully  convinced  that  the  fight  was  not  a  sordid 
scrimmage  for  power  and  possessions,  but  an  unselfish  strug- 
gle to  overthrow  a  sinister  conspiracy  against  human  liberty 
and  human  rights. 

"Once  that  conviction  was  reached,  the  great  Republic  of 
the  West  has  leaped  into  the  arena,  and  she  stands  now  side  by 
side  with  the  European  democracies,  who,  bruised  and  bleeding 
after  three  years  of  grim  conflict,  are  still  fighting  the  most 
savage  foe  that  ever  menaced  the  freedom  of  the  world. 

"The  glowing  phrases  of  the  President's  noble  deliverance 
illumine  the  horizon  and  make  clearer  than  ever  the  goal  we 
are  striving  to  reach. 

DEMOCRACY,  FREEDOM  AND  PEACE. 

"There  are  three  phrases  which  will  stand  out  forever  in 
the  story  of  this  crusade.  The  first  is  that  *the  world  must  be 
made  safe  for  democracy,'  the  next,  *the  menace  to  peace  and 
freedom  lies  in  the  existence  of  autocratic  governments  backed 
by  organized  force,  which.is  controlled  wholly  by  their  wiU  and 
not  by  the  will  of  their  people,'  and  the  crowning  phrase  is 
that  in  which  he  declares  that  *a  steadfast  concert  for  peace 
can  never  be  maintained  except  by  the  partnership  of  demo- 
cratic nations.' 

"These  words  represent  the  faith  which  inspires  and  sus- 
tains our  people  in  the  tremendous  sacrifices  they  have  made 
and  are  still  making.  They  also  beUeve  that  the  unity  and 
peace  of  mankind  can  only  rest  upon  democracy,  upon  the 
right  to  have  a  voice  in  their  own  Government;  upon  respect 
for  the  right  and  liberties  of  nations  both  great  and  small,  and 
upon  the  universal  dominion  of  pubHc  right. 

"To  all  of  these  the  Prussian  military  autocracy  is  an  im- 
placable foe. 


426  AMEKICA  STEPS  IN. 


'The  Imperial  War  Cabinet,  representative  of  all  the 
peoples  of  the  British  Empire,  wish  me  on  their  behalf  to  rec- 
ognize the  chivaby  and  courage  which  call  the  people  of  the 
United  States  to  dedicate  the  whole  of  their  resom-ces  to  the 
greatest  cause  that  ever  engaged  human  endeavor." 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD. 

UakeB  Wobld's  Biggest  Wab  Loan— Seize  Geeman  Ships— .Inteique  Exposei>— 
Genebal  Peeshing  and  Staff  in  Eubope— The  Navy  on  Duty  in  Nobth  Sea 
— FiEST  United  States  Troops  Eeach  Feance—Gebmany's  Attempts  to 
Sink  Tboop  Ships  Th wasted  by  Navy's  Guns. 

SCARCELY  had  the  ink  had  time  to  dry  on  the  Nation's 
command  to  begin  war  than  Congress  voted  an  appropria- 
tion of  $7,000,000,000  for  war  purposes.  This,  the  largest 
single  appropriation  ever  made  by  a  government  in  the  world, 
was  passed  without  a  dissenting  vote.  Still  later,  a  deficiency 
bill  of  $2,827,000,000  for  war  expenses  was  passed.  Other 
legislative  measures  provided  for  the  increase  of  the  army  and 
navy  and  for  ''selective  conscription,"  although  the  latter  was 
passed  in  the  face  of  considerable  opposition  on  the  part  of 
many  who  believed  that  in  a  democracy  armies  should  be  raised 
by  volunteer  recruiting.  Many  felt  that  compulsory  service 
was  not  in  accordance  with  the  ideals  of  liberty. 

The  Conscription  lAct  provided  for  the  registration  of 
every  male  citizen  or  resident  in  the  United  States  between  the 
ages  of  21  and  31  years,  and  was  enacted  on  May  19,  1917. 
Registration  of  these  military  available  was  made  on  June  5, 
when  10,000,000  names  were  entered  on  the  rolls  as  subject  to 
draft  by  the  Government.  The  principle  of  "seleetive  con- 
scription" is  that  the  authorities  shall  have  the  right  to  exempt 
from  military  duty  among  those  registered  such  persons  whose 
employment  in  civil  life  is  necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  thq 
industries  and  business  of  the  country,  as  well  as  those  who, 
though  physically  fit,  have  others  dependent  upon  them  for 
support. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  Government  after  the  declara- 
tion of  war  was  the  seizure  of  the  German  merchant  vessels 
interned  in  United  States  ports.     These  vessels  had  a  ton- 


428  UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD.  / 

nage  of  upward  of  629,000  tons  and  were  estimated  as  being 
worth  in  the  neighborhood  of  $100,000,000.  The  seizure  was 
notable  in  that  it  was  the  largest  ever  made  by  a  country  at 
(war. 

When  the  Government  went  to  taEe  charge  of  the  vessels 
li  was  found  that  the  German  officers  had  destroyed  parts  of 
the  machinery  in  many  of  them  in  an  attempt  to  put  them  out 
of  commission.  The  condition  of  the  boats  was  such  that  all 
of  them  had  to  be  put  in  drydock,  and  it  was  several  months 
before  some  of  them  could  be  put  in  condition  for  use. 
SIXTY  RINGLEADERS  ARRESTED. 

Immediately  the  ships  had  been  seized  an  order  was  issued 
by  Attorney  General  Gregory  for  the  arrest  of  sixty  alleged 
ringleaders  in  German  plots,  conspiracies  and  machinations 
throughout  the  United  States.  The  Department  of  Justice, 
which  had  long  been  gathering  evidence  in  connection  with  the 
suspects,  had  complete  reports  about  their  activities.  They 
were  all  German  citizens,  had  participated  in  German 
intrigues,  and  all  were  regarded  as  dangerous  persons  to  be 
at  large. 

They  were  all  arrested,  bail  was  refused  them,  and  they 
were  locked  up  for  safekeeping.  This  was  the  first  step  in  the 
general  roimding  up  of  the  conspirators  throughout  the  coun- 
try. The  men  were  placed  in  three  groups:  Those  having 
previously  been  arrested  charged  with  violation  of  American 
neutrahty  in  furthering  German  plots  of  various  sorts  and 
who  were  at  liberty  under  bond  awaiting  the  action  of  higher 
courts;  those  who  had  been  indicted  by  Federal  Grand  Juries 
for  similar  offenses  and  were  at  liberty  under  bond  awaiting 
the  action  of  the  higher  courts,  and  persons  who,  although  they 
had  never  been  indicted  or  convicted,  had  long  been  under 
surveillance  by  the  Secret  Service,  or  the  investigators  of  the 
Department  of  Justice. 

These  arrests  were  the  &st  of  alien  enemies  made  |n 


UJSICLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD.  429 

this  country  in  more  than  a  century,  under  the  direct  order  of 
the  Attorney  General  without  reference  to  the  courts  or  obtain- 
ing warrants.  Under  an  act  of  Congress  passed  in  1798  the 
President  is  empowered  to  adopt  this  course.  The  right  had 
not  been  invoked,  however,  since  the  war  with  Great  Britain 
in  1812. 

ARREST  OF  GERMAN  PLOTTERS. 

The  arrests  were  only  the  beginning  of  the  work  of  the 
Secret  Service  Department  in  a  complete  investigation  of  the 
activities  of  the  thousands  of  German  reservists,  stationed  in 
the  United  States,  and  suspected  of  being  connected  with  plots 
which  daily  were  cropping  out.  These  plots  were  being 
exposed  constantly.  Some  were  abandoned  before  being 
completely  worked  out,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Germans 
suspected  they  were  being  sliadowed.  It  was  estimated  that 
there  were  in  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  the  discoveries 
of  conspiracies  between  15,000  and  18,000  German  reservists 
in  the  prime  of  life,  whose  energies  were  undoubtedly  being 
employed  in  the  spreading  of  the  German  propaganda.  It 
was  upon  this  army  that  the  Secret  Service  men  kept  a  close 
watch,  and  who  were  generally  found  to  have  within  their 
ranks  the  men  wanted  at  various  times  in  connection  with  the 
advancement  of  German  plans. 

Many  of  the  Germans  arrested  were  quasi-officials  of  the 
German  government.  Some  of  them,  it  is  alleged,  were  the 
instrumentalities  through  which  Captain  Boy-Ed  and  Captain 
von  Papen  had  carried  out  their  activities  in  this  country 
against  the  Allies.  iA  number  of  those  arrested  v/ere  prop- 
erly classed  as  spies.  Cam_ps  were  established  for  the  sailors 
taken  from  the  interned  German  vessels,  and  many  of  them 
were  sent  to  Fort  Oglethorpe,  Georgia,  where  they  were  held. 

The  far-reaching  influence  of  the  German  spy  system 
was  at  this  time  laid  before  the  American  public,  with  all  of 
its  startling  ramifications.    For  months  there  had  been  stories 


430  UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD. 

of  German  intrigue  and  conspiracies,  and  the  Secret  Serrice 
had  unearthed  innumerable  plots  to  destroy  ammunition 
plants  and  industrial  establishments,  which  would  have  the 
effect  of  making  it  difficult  for  America  to  supply  ammu- 
nition to  the  Allies. 

The  most  insidious  scheme  imearthed  by  the  government 
was  that  which  had  to  do  with  the  attempt  of  Germany  to 
secure  the  alliance  of  Mexico  and  Japan  to  make  war  on  the 
United  States. 

Japan,  through  Mexican  mediation,  was  to  be  urged  to 
abandon  her  allies  and  join  in  the  attack  on  the  United  States. 

Mexico,  for  her  reward,  was  to  receive  general  financial 
support  from  Germany,  reconquer  Texas,  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona — lost  provinces — and  share  in  the  victorious  peace 
terms  Germany  contemplated. 

MACHINATIONS  OF  GERMAN  MINISTER. 

Details  were  left  to  German  Minister  von  Eckhardt  in 
Mexico  City,  who  by  instructions  signed  by  Germ_an  Foreign 
Minister  Zimmerman,  at  Berlin,  January  19,  1917,  was  di- 
rected to  propose  the  alliance  with  Mexico,  to  General  Car- 
ranza,  and  suggest  that  Mexico  seek  to  bring  Japan  into  the 
plot. 

These  instructions  were  transmitted  to  von  Eckhardt 
through  Count  von  Bernstorff,  former  German  Ambassador. 

Germany  pictured  to  Mexico,  Ijy  broad  intimation,  Eng- 
land and  the  entente  allies  defeated,  Germany  and  her  allies 
triumphant  and  in  world  domination  by  the  instrument  of 
unrestricted  submarine  warfare. 

A  copy  of  Zimmerman's  instructions  to  von  Eckhardt, 
sent  through  von  Bernstorff,  is  in  possession  of  the  United 
States  goverDment.    It  is  as  follows: 

''Berlin,  Januaiy  19,  1917. 
**On  the  first  of  February  we  intend  to  begin  submarine 


UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD.  431 

^varfare  unrestricted.     In  spite  of  this,  it  is  oui*  intention  to 
endeavor  to  keep  neutral  the  United  States  of  America. 

'If  this  attempt  is  not  successful  we  propose  an  alliance 
on  the  following  basis  with  Mexico:  That  we  shall  make  war 
together  and  together  make  peace.  We  shall  give  general 
financial  suppoii:,  and  it  is  understood  that  Mexico  is  to  re- 
conquer the  lost  territory  in  New  Mexico,  Texas  and  Ari- 
zona.   The  details  are  left  to  you  for  settlement. 

''You  are  instructed  to  inform  the  President  of  Mexico 
of  the  above,  in  the  greatest  confidence,  as  soon  as  it  is  cer- 
tain that  there  will  be  an  outbreak  of  war  with  the  United 
States,  and  suggest  that  the  President  of  Mexico,  on  his  own 
initiative,  should  communicate  with  Japan,  suggesting  adher- 
ence at  once  to  this  plan;  at  the  same  time,  offer  to  mediate 
between  Germany  and  Japan. 

"Please  call  to  the  attention  of  the  President  of  Mexico 
that  the  employment  of  ruthless  submarine  warfare  now  prom- 
ises to  compel  England  to  make  peace  in  a  few  months. 

"ZIMMERMAN." 

BETHMANN-HOLLWEG'S  FALSE  STATEMENT. 

This  document  was  in  the  possession  of  the  government 
at  the  very  time  Chancellor  von  Bethmann-HoUweg  was  de- 
claring that  the  United  States  had  placed  an  interpretation 
on  the  submarine  declaration  "never  intended  by  Germany," 
and  that  Germany  had  promoted  and  honored  friendly  rela- 
tions with  the  United  States  "as  an  heirloom  from  Frederick 
the  Great.'* 

Of  itself,  if  there  were  no  other,  it  is  considered  a  suffi- 
cient answer  to  the  German  Chancellor's  plaint  that  the 
United  States  "brusquely''  broke  off  relations  without  giving 
"authentic"  reasons  for  its  action. 

The  document  supplies  the  missing  link  to  many  sepa- 
rate chains  of  circumstances,  which  until  then  had  seemed  to 
lead  to  no  definite  point.     It  shed  new  light  upon  the  fre- 


^^2         UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD. 

quently  reported  but  indefinable  movements  of  the  Mexican 
government  to  couple  its  situation  with  the  friction  between 
the  United  States  and  Japan. 

It  added  another  chapter  to  the  celebrated  report  of 
Jules  Cambon,  French  Ambassador  in  Berlin  before  the  war, 
of  Germany's  world-wide  plans  for  stirring  strife  on  every 
continent  where  they  might  aid  her  in  the  struggle  for  world 
domination,  which  she  dreamed  was  close  at  hand.  It  added 
a  climax  to  the  operations  of  Count  von  Bernstorflf  and  the 
German  Embassy  in  this  country,  which  had  been  colored  with 
passport  frauds,  charges  of  dynamite  plots  and  intrigue,  the 
full  extent  of  which  never  had  been  published. 

And  last  but  not  least,  it  explained  in  a  very  large  de- 
gree the  attitude  of  the  Mexican  government  toward  the 
United  States  on  many  points. 

UNCLE  SAM  NOT  BOTHERED. 

But  the  efforts  of  the  German  enthusiasts,  which  carried 
them  beyond  the  bounds  of  reasonable  safety  in  the  United 
States,  did  not  bother  Uncle  Sam  much  in  the  prosecution  of 
his  war  plans.  Within  a  short  period  after  the  declaration  of 
war  the  country  had  written  a  chapter  in  national  achieve- 
ment unrivalled  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

American  destroyers  were  mobihzed,  outfitted  and  sent 
to  the  North  Sea  within  a  few  days  after  the  nation  entered 
the  conflict.  With  them  v/ent  their  own  supply  vessels  and 
numerous  converted  craft  adapted  to  naval  use.  Their  num- 
ber and  the  exact  duty  they  have  assumed  never  have  been  re- 
vealed, but  that  they  have  been  recognized  as  a  formidable  part 
of  the  grand  alhed  fleet  was  evidenced  by  the  designation  of 
American  Vice  Admiral  Sims  to  command  all  the  forces  in  the 
important  zone  off  Ireland. 

The  fleet  began  actual  duty  in  the  European  waters  on 
May  4,  and  the  presence  of  the  vessels  and  the  American  sail- 
ors was  the  subject  of  official  correspondence.     The  British 


UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD.  438 

Adiriiralty  announced  the  arrival  of  the  American  destroyers 

as  follows: 

*The  British  Admiralty  states  that  a  flotilla  of  United 
States  destroyers  recently  arrived  in  this  comitry  to  co-oper- 
ate with  our  naval  forces  in  the  prosecution  of  the  war. 

"The  services  which  the  American  vessels  are  rendering 
to  the  allied  cause  are  of  the  greatest  value  and  are  deeply 
appreciated." 

Vice  Admiral  Sir  David  Beatty,  commander  of  the 
British  Grand  Fleet,  sent  the  following  message  to  Admiral 
Henry  T.  Mayo,  commander  of  the  United  States  Atlantic 
Fleet: 

"The  Grand  Fleet  rejoices  that  the  Atlantic  Fleet  will 
now  share  in  preserving  the  liberties  of  the  world  and  main- 
taining the  chivalry  of  the  sea.'* 

Admiral  Mayo  replied: 

"The  United  States  Atlantic  Fleet  appreciates  the  mes- 
sage from  the  British  Fleet  and  welcomes  opportunities  for 
work  with  the  British  Fleet  for  the  freedom  of  the  seas." 
GENERAL  PERSHING  IN  ENGLAND. 

Less  than  a  month  later  Major  General  John  J.  Persh- 
ing, with  his  staff,  were  safely  in  England  ready  to  take  com- 
mand of  the  first  expeditionary  force  that  ever  set  foot  on  the 
European  shores  to  make  war.  General  Pershing's  personal 
staff  and  the  members  of  the  General  Staff  who  went  to  per- 
form the  preliminary  work  for  the  first  fighting  force,  num- 
bered 57  officers  and  about  50  enlisted  men,  together  with  a 
civilian  clerical  force. 

The  party  landed  at  Liverpool  on  June  8,  after  an  un- 
eventful trip  on  the  T^^iite  Star  liner  Baltic.  The  party  was 
received  with  full  military  honors  and  immediately  entrained 
for  London,  where  it  was  welcomed  by  Lord  Derby,  the  Min- 
ister of  War;  Viscount  French,  commander  of  the  British 
home  forces,  and  a  large  body  of  American  officials. 


434  UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD.  / 

In  London  General  Pershing  was  later  received  at  Buck- 
ingham Palace  by  King  George. 

He  was  presented  to  the  King  by  Lord  Brooke,  com- 
mander of  the  Twelfth  Canadian  Infantry  Brigade.  General 
Pershing  was  accompanied  to  the  palace  by  his  personal  staff 
of  twelve  officers.  After  the  audience  the  officers  paid  a  for- 
mal call  at  the  United  States  embassy. 

PERSHING  RECEIVES  ROYAL  GREETING. 

After  the  formal  reception  the  King  shook  hands  with 
General  Pershing  and  the  members  of  his  staff,  and  expressed 
pleasure  at  welcoming  the  advance  guard  of  the  American 
army.  King  George  chatted  for  a  few  moments  with  each 
member  of  General  Pershing's  staff.  In  addressing  General 
Pershmg  the  King  said: 

'^'It  has  been  the  dream  of  my  life  to  see  the  two  great 
English-speaking  nations  more  closely  united.  My  dreams 
have  been  realized.  It  is  with  the  utmost  pleasure  that  I 
welcome  you,  at  the  head  of  the  American  contingent,  to  our 
shores.'* 

Major  General  Pershing's  staff  has  been  characterized  as 
''one  of  live  wires."  Most  of  the  officers  are  West  Pointers, 
but  there  are  among  them  some  who  rose  from  the  ranks,  in- 
eluding  Major  James  G.  Harbord,  chief  of  staff. 

General  Pershing  reached  France  on  June  13,  where  he 
was  given  a  tumultuous  welcome.  He  landed  at  Boulogne  in 
the  morning  and  was  met  by  General  Pelletier,  representing 
the  French  government  and  General  Headquarters  of  the 
French  army;  Commandant  Hue,  representing  the  Minister 
of  War;  General  Lucas,  commanding  the  northern  region; 
Colonel  Daru,  Governor  of  Lille;  the  Prefect  of  the  Somme 
and  other  officials. 

Among  the  latter  were  Rene  Besnard,  Under  Secretary 
of  War,  representing  the  Cabinet;  Commandant  Thouzellier, 


UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD.  435 

representing  Marshal  Jofire,  and  Vice- Admiral  Ronarch,  rep- 
resenting the  navy. 

The  scene  in  the  harbor  as  General  Pershing  set  foot  on 
French  soil  was  one  of  striking  beauty  and  animation.  The 
day  was  bright  and  sunny.  The  quays  were  crowded  with 
townspeople  and  soldiers  from  all  Entente  armies,  with 
French  and  British  troops  predominating. 

The  shipping  was  gay  with  flags  and  bunting,  many  mer- 
chant craft  hoisting  American  flags,  while  along  the  crowded 
quays  the  American  colors  were  everywhere  shown  as  a  token 
of  the  French  welcome. 

PERSHING  RECEIVES  AN  OVATION. 
A  great  wave  of  enthusiasm  came  from  the  crowds  as 
General  Pershing  stepped  upon  the  quay  and  as  the  band 
played  the  "MarseiUaise"  he  and  the  members  of  his  staff 
stood  uncovered.  M.  Besnard,  in  greeting  the  American 
commander  in  behalf  of  the  government,  said  the  Americans 
had  come  to  France  to  combat  with  the  AUies  for  the  same 
cause  of  right  and  civilization.  General  PeUetier  extended 
a  greeting  to  the  Americans  in  behalf  of  the  army. 

General  Dumas,  commandant  of  the  region  in  which 
Boulogne  is  located,  said: 

*' Your  coining  opens  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
Tlie  United  States  of  America  is  now  taking  its  part  ^.vith 
the  United  States  of  Europe,  Together  they  are  about  to 
foujid  the  United  States  of  the  World,  which  will  definitely 
and  finally  end  the  war  and  give  a  peace  which  will  be  endur- 
ing and  suitable  for  humanity," 

General  Pershing  stood  at  parade  as  the  various  ad- 
dresses were  delivered  and  acknowledged  each  with  a  salute, 
British  soldiers  and  marines  lined  up  along  the  quays  had 
rendered  military  honors  as  the  vessel  flying  the  Stars  and 
Stripes,  preceded  by  destroyers  and  accompanied  by  hydro- 
planes and  dirigible  balloons,  steamed  up  the  channel.    Mill- 


436  UNCLE  8AM  TAKES  HOLD. 

tary  bands  played  "The  Star-Spangled  Banner"  and  the 
^'Marseillaise"  as  General  Pelletier  and  his  party  boarded  the 
boat  to  welcome  General  Pershing. 

After  the  representatives  of  the  French  authorities  had 
been  presented  to  the  American  officers,  the  party  landed  and 
reviewed  the  French  territorials.  The  Americans  then  entered 
motor  cars  for  a  ride  aromid  the  city.  All  along  the  route 
they  were  followed  by  crowds  of  people  who  greeted  General 
Pershing  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm. 

PERSHING  IN  PARIS. 
The  General  and  his  staff  were  taken  in  a  special  train  to 
Pans,  where  General  Pershing  was  received  by  Marshal 
Joffre,  Ambassador  Sharp  and  Paul  Painleve,  French  Min- 
ister of  War.  In  the  French  capital  General  Pershing  and 
staff  were  received  by  the  populace  with  wild  enthusiasm,  and 
for  several  days  they  were  feted  and  entertained. 

There  were,  during  the  short  period  of  entertainment, 
several  incidents  which  will  long  be  noted  in  history,  as  when 
General  Pershing  visited  the  Tomb  of  Napoleon  and  when  he 
took  from  its  case  the  sword  of  the  world  conqueror  and  kissed 
it,  and  again  when  he  placed  a  Avreath  on  the  grave  of 
Lafayette. 

Within  a  few  days  General  Pershing  had  established  the 
army  headquarters  in  the  Rue  De  Constantine  and  began  the 
work  preliminary  to  the  campaign  on  the  firing  line. 

Second  cmly  to  the  enthusiastic  reception  tendered  Gen- 
eral Pershing  and  his  staff  was  that  accorded  the  first  United 
States  Medical  Unit,  which  reached  London  in  June.  The 
vanguard  of  the  American  arm_y,  composed  of  26  surgeons 
and  60  nurses,  in  command  of  Jfajor  Harry  L.  Gilchrist,  was 
received  by  King  George  and  Queen  Mary,  the  Prince  of 
Wales  and  Princess  Mary,  at  Buckingham  Palace. 

The  reception  to  General  Pershing  and  the  Medical 
branch  was,  however,  nothing  as  compared  to  the  popular 


UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD.  437 

demonstration  which  marked  the  arrival  of  the  first  of  the 
American  armed  forces  on  European  shores  to  participate  in 
war.  The  vanguard  of  the  army  reached  France  on  June  27. 
No  official  announcement  was  ever  made  of  the  number  of 
men  in  the  first  expeditionary  force,  but  it  is  an  incident  of 
modern  history  that  the  United  States  made  a  record  for  the 
transportation  of  troops  across  the  seas  scarcely  equalled  by 
that  of  any  other  country. 

ABSOLUTE  SECRECY  OBSERVED. 

All  America  knew  that  troops  were  being  sent  to  France, 
but  no  information  had  been  given  as  to  the  time  of  departure 
or  as  to  their  destination.  The  world  was,  therefore,  fairly 
electrified  when  the  annoimcement  was  made  that  in  defiance 
of  the  German  submarines,  thousands  of  seasoned  regulars 
and  marines,  trained  fighting  men,  with  the  tan  of  long  service 
on  the  Mexican  border,  in  Haiti,  or  Santo  Domingo  still  on 
their  faces,  had  arrived  in  France  to  fight  beside  the  French, 
the  British,  the  Belgians,  the  Russians,  the  Portuguese  and 
the  Italian  troops  on  the  Western  front. 

Despite  the  enormous  difficulties  of  unpreparedness  and 
the  submarine  dangers  that  faced  them,  the  plans  of  the  army 
and  navy  were  carried  through  with  clock-like  precision. 

When  the  order  came  to  prepare  immediately  an  expe- 
ditionary force  to  go  to  France,  virtually  all  of  the  men  who 
first  crossed  the  seas  were  on  the  Mexican  border.  General 
Pershing  himself  was  at  his  headquarters  in  San  Antonio. 
There  were  no  army  transports  available  in  the  Atlantic.  The 
vessels  that  carried  the  troops  were  scattered  on  their  usual 
routes.  Army  reserve  stores  were  still  depleted  from  the  bor- 
der mobilization.  Regiments  were  below  war  strength.  That 
was  the  condition  v/hen  President  Wilson  decided  that  the  plea 
of  the  French  high  commission  should  be  answered  and  a  force 
of  regulars  sent  at  once  to  France. 

At  his  word  the  War  Department  began  to  move.    Gen- 


438  UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD. 

eral  Pershing  was  summoned  quietly  to  Washington.  His 
arrival  created  some  speculation  in  the  press,  but  at  the  re- 
quest of  Secretary  Baker  the  newspapers  generally  refrained 
from  discussion  of  this  point. 

There  were  a  thousand  other  activities  afoot  In  the  de- 
partment at  the  time.  All  the  business  of  preparing  for  the 
mihtary  registration  of  10,000,000  men,  of  providing  quarters 
and  instructors  for  nearly  50,000  prospective  officers,  for  find- 
ing arms  and  equipment  for  millions  of  troops  yet  to  be  or- 
ganized, of  expanding  the  regular  army  to  full  war  strength, 
of  preparing  and  recruiting  the  National  Guard  for  war  was 
at  hand. 

PERSHING  SETS  UP  HEADQUARTERS. 

General  Pershing  dropped  quietly  into  the  department 
and  set  up  the  first  headquarters  of  the  American  expedition- 
ary forces  in  a  little  office,  hardly  large  enough  to  hold  him- 
self and  his  personal  staff.  There,  with  the  aid  of  the  general 
staff,  of  Secretary  Baker  and  of  the  chiefs  of  the  War  De- 
partment bureaus,  the  plans  were  worked  out. 

Announcement  of  the  sending  of  the  force  under  Gen- 
eral Pershing  was  made  May  18.  The  press  gave  the  news 
to  the  country  and  there  were  daily  stories. 

There  came  a  day  when  General  Pershing  no  longer  was 
in  the  department.  Officers  of  the  general  staff  suddenly  were 
missing  from  their  desks.  No  word  of  this  was  reported. 
Then  came  word  from  England  that  Pershing  and  his  officers 
were  there.    All  was  carried  through  without  publicity. 

Other  matters  relating  to  the  expedition  were  carried  ou? 
mthout  a  word  of  publicity.  The  regiments  that  were  to  go 
with  General  Pershing  were  all  selected  before  he  left  and 
moving  toward  the  seacoast  from  the  border.  Other  regiments 
also  were  moving  north,  east  and  west  to  the  points  where 
they  were  to  be  expanded,  and  the  movements  of  the  troops 
who  were  to  be  first  in  France  were  obscm-ed  in  all  this  hur- 
rying of  troop  trains  over  the  land. 


UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD,  439 

Great  shipments  of  war  supplies  began  to  assemble  at 
the  embarkation  ports.  Liners  suddenly  were  taken  oflf  their 
regular  runs  with  no  announcement.  A  great  armada  was 
made  ready,  supplied,  equipped  as  transports,  loaded  with 
men  and  guns  and  sent  to  sea,  and  all  with  virtually  no  men- 
tion from  the  press. 

The  navy  bore  its  full  share  in  the  achievement.  From 
the  time  the  troop  ships  left  their  docks  and  headed  toward 
sea,  responsibility  for  the  lives  of  their  thousands  of  men  rested 
upon  the  officers  and  crews  of  the  fighting  ships  that  moved 
beside  them  or  swept  free  the  sea  lanes  before  them.  As  they 
pushed  on  through  the  days  and  nights  toward  the  danger 
zone,  where  German  submarines  lay  in  wait,  every  precaution 
that  trained  minds  of  the  navy  could  devise  was  taken. 
A  BRILLL\NT  CLIMAX. 

The  brilliant  climax  to  the  achievement  was  made  public 
when  it  was  announced  that  not  only  had  the  last  units  of  the 
expeditionary  force  been  landed  on  July  3,  but  that  the 
American  navy  had  driven  off  two  German  submarines,  prob- 
ably sinking  one  of  them,  when  the  transport  ships  and  con- 
voys had  been  attacked. 

The  last  units  of  the  American  expeditionary  force,  com- 
prising vessels  loaded  with  supplies  and  horses,  reached 
France  amid  the  screeching  of  whistles  and  moaning  of  sirens. 
Their  arrival,  one  week  after  the  first  troops  landed,  was 
greeted  almost  as  warmly  as  the  arrival  of  the  troops  them= 

selves. 

Many  of  the  American  soldiers  crowded  down  to  the 
wharf  to  greet  the  last  ships  of  the  expedition  and  the  Ameri- 
can  vessels  in  the  harbor,  which  had  made  up  previous  con-= 
tingents  of  the  force,  joined  in  the  welcome.  The  late  arrival 
of  the  supply  ships  was  due  not  only  to  later  departure  from 
America,  but  also  to  the  fact  that  the  vessels  were  slower  than 
those  which  had  come  before.    The  delay  caused  little  anxiety, 


440  UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD. 

although  it  worked  temporary  inconvenience  to  the  troops 
who  had  been  waitmg  for  materials  with  which  to  work 

Probably  the  happiest  man  in  port  was  Rear  Admiral 
Cleaves  commander  of  the  convoy.  From  the  bridge  of  his 
flagship  he  watched  the  successful  conclusion  of  his  plans  with 
characteristic  modesty  and  insisted  upon  bestowing  the  lion's 
share  of  credit  for  the  crossing  on  the  navigating  officers  of 
his  command.  °       => 

ADVANCE  PLANS  BRIEFLY  SKETCHED 
Sketching  briefly  the  advance  plans  whereby  all  units  of 
the  contingent  had  to  keep  a  daily  rendezvous  with  accom- 
panying warships,  he  said,  that,  thanks  to  his  navigating  offi- 
cers and  despite  overcast  skies,  which  made  astronomical 
oDservations  impossible,  each  rendezvous  had  been  minutelv 
and  accurately  kept  by  each  unit.  The  orders  he  issued  at  the 
outset,  which  coraprised  scores  of  details,  were  observed,  the 
Admiral  declared,  with  such  exactness  that  the  contingent 
units  and  convoymg  warships  invariably  met  each  other  with- 
m  halt  an  hour  of  the  appointed  time. 

.^.^  ^?w??"*T  ^^'*°^  ^^^^  ^^«««^n^'  according  to 
officers  of  both  branches  of  the  service,  was  the  hearty  co- 
operation between  the  army  and  navy.  From  the  time  of  the 
departi^e  until  the  landing  there  was  not  the  slightest  snggel 
K)n  of  friction,  and  co-ordination  played  its  part  distinctively 
m  the  success  of  the  expedition. 

that  the  Navy  had  won  its  first  victory  in  driving  off  attack- 
mg  submarmes.  The  news  of  the  fight  was  given  out  by  the 
Navy  Department  and  the  Committee  on  Public  Information, 
with  the  announcement  of  the  final  landing  of  the  troops  and 
the  safe  arrival  of  the  supply  ships. 

The  announcement,  sponsored"  by  Secretary  Daniels  of 
the  Navy,  shows  beyond  the  shadow  of  doubt  th'^t  the  Berhn 
Admiralty  had  been  "tipped  off"  that  the  American  expX 


UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD.  441 

ionary  force  was  on  its  way,  and  had  carefully  planned  to 
send  the  transports  to  the  bottom  of  the  Atlantic. 

Realizing  that  an  attack  might  be  expected  in  the  war 
zone,  and  that  every  precaution  would  be  taken  to  ward  it  off, 
the  Germans  moved  far  out  from  land,  in  the  hope  of  catch- 
ing the  American  gunners  napping.  They  were  fooled. 
Uncle  Sam's  jackies  were  at  the  guns  when  the  fleet  of  sub- 
marines stuck  their  periscopes  above  the  waves  and  trained 
their  torpedo  tubes  on  the  lines  of  transports. 

VV^AVES  COVERED  WITH  SHELLS. 

The  torpedo  boats  and  other  craft  opened  up  and  cov- 
ered the  waves  with  shells.  The  Germans  soon  lost  at  least 
one  submarine  and,  having  had  enough  of  the  fight,  they  dis- 
appeared. As  the  little  destroyers  dashed  straight  at  the  sub- 
marines and  shot  under  water  explosives  in  their  wake  as  they 
submerged,  the  transports  dashed  through  the  night  at  top 
speed  without  having  been  scratched. 

The  extreme  degree  to  which  the  Germans  had  prepared 
to  destroy  the  American  force  is  shown  by  the  second  part  of 
the  official  announcement,  which  tells  how  another  section  of 
the  transport  fleet  was  waylaid  under  cover  of  darkness,  but 
how  the  American  gumiers  were  too  quick  for  the  Germans. 

The  text  of  Secretary  Daniels'  announcement  was: 

*'It  is  with  the  joy  of  a  great  rehef  that  I  announce  to 
the  people  of  the  United  States  the  safe  arrival  in  France  of 
every  fighting  man  and  every  fighting  ship.  Now  that  the 
last  vessel  has  reached  port,  it  is  safe  to  disclose  the  dangers 
that  were  encountered  and  to  tell  the  complete  story  of  peril 
and  courage. 

"The  transports  bearing  our  troops  were  twice  attacked 
by  German  submarines  on  the  way  across.  On  both  occasions 
the  U=boats  were  beaten  off  with  every  appearance  of  loss. 
One  was  certainly  sunk,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
accurate  fire  of  our  gunners  sent  others  to  the  bottom. 


^42  UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD. 

"For  purposes  of  convenience,  the  expedition  was  divided 
into  contingents,  each  contingent  including  troopships  and  a 
naval  escort  designed  to  keep  off  such  German  raiders  as 
might  be  met. 

"An  ocean  rendezvous  had  also  been  arranged  with  the 
American  destroyers  now  operating  in  European  waters  in 
order  that  the  passage  of  the  danger  zone  might  be  attended 
by  every  possible  protection. 

"The  first  attack  took  place  at  10.30  on  the  night  of  June 
22.  What  gives  it  peculiar  and  disturbing  significance  is  that 
our  ships  were  set  upon  at»a  point  well  this  side  of  the  ren- 
dezvous, and  in  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  presumably  free 
from  submarines.  The  attack  was  made  in  force,  although 
the  night  made  impossible  any  exact  count  of  the  U-boats 
gathered  for  what  they  deemed  a  slaughter. 

HIGH  SEAS  CONVOY. 

"The  high  seas  convoy,  circling  with  their  searchlights, 
answered  with  heavy  gunfire,  and  its  accuracy  stands  proved 
by  the  fact  that  the  torpedo  discharge  became  increasingly 
scattered  and  inaccurate.  It  is  not  known  how  many  tor- 
pedoes were  launched,  but  five  were  counted  as  they  sped  by 
bow  and  stern. 

"A  second' attack  was  launched  a  few  days  later  against 
another  contingent.  The  point  of  assault  was  beyond  the  ren- 
dezvous and  our  destroyers  were  sailing  as  a  screen  between 
the  transports  and  all  harm.  The  results  of  the  battle  were  in 
favor  of  American  gunnery. 

"Not  alone  did  the  destroyers  hold  the  U-boats  at  a  safe 
distance,  but  their  speed  also  resulted  in  the  sinking  of  one 
submarine  at  least.  Grenades  were  used  in  firing,  a  depth 
charge  explosive  timed  to  go  off  at  a  certain  distance  under 
water.  In  one  instance,  oil  and  ^vreckage  covered  the  surface 
of  the  sea  after  a  shot  from  a  destroyer  at  a  periscope,  and  the 
reports  make  claim  of  sinking. 


UNCLE  SAM  TAKES  HOLD.  443 

"Protected  by  our  high  seas  convoy,  by  our  destroyers 
and  by  French  war  vessels,  the  contingent  proceeded  and 
joined  the  others  in  a  French  port. 

"The  whole  nation  will  rejoice  that  so  great  a  peril  is 
passed  for  the  vanguard  of  the  men  who  will  fight  our  battles 
in  France.  No  more  thrilling  Fourth  of  July  celebration 
could  have  been  arranged  than  this  glad  news  that  lifts  the 
shadow  of  dread  from  the  heart  of  America." 

Upon  receipt  of  the  announcement.  Secretary  Baker 
wrote  the  following  letter  to  Secretary  Daniels,  conveying  the 
army's  thanks  to  the  navy: 

"Word  has  just  come  to  the  War  Department  that  the 
last  ships  conveying  General  Pershing's  expeditionary  force 
to  France  arrived  safe  today.  As  you  know,  the  navy  assumed 
the  responsibility  for  the  safety  of  these  ships  on  the  sea  and 
through  the  danger  zone.  The  ships  themselves  and  their 
convoys  were  in  the  hands  of  the  navy,  and  now  that  they  have 
arrived,  and  carried,  without  the  loss  of  a  man,  our  soldiers 
who  are  the  first  to  represent  America  in  the  battle  for  democ- 
racy, I  beg  leave  to  tender  to  you,  to  the  Admiral  and  to  the 
navy,  the  hearty  thanks  of  the  War  Department  and  of  the 
army.  This  splendid  achievement  is  an  auspicious  beginning 
and  it  has  been  characterized  throughout  by  the  most  cordial 
and  effective  co-operation  between  the  two  military  services.*' 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

A  GERMAN  CRISIS. 

The  D0WNFAI.L  oj' Bethmann-Hoixweg-The  Ceown  Pei^ce  in  the  Lxme  Lioht 
-HoiiWEss  Unique  Caeeeb-De.  Geoeg  Michaelis  Appointed  Chancellob 
— IHE  Kaisee  and  How  He  Gets  His  Immense  Powee. 

nPHE  active  participation  of  the  United  States  in  the  war. 
1  as  distmctly  marked  by  the  sending  of  troops  to  France, 
aside  from  giving  needed  inspiration  to  the  Allied  forces 
may  be  said  to  have  had  a  decided  effect  in  Germany.  While 
the  German  subjects  are  loyal,  there  has  developed  in  the 
country,  as  m  every  other  country,  a  large  element  of  Social- 
ists and  progressives. 

Something  of  a  climax  was  reached  in  the  affairs  of  the 
HohenzoUern  dynasty  just  when  the  United  States  troops 
were  preparmg  to  take  their  places  on  the  battle  line  in  France 
and  when  the  first  of  the  conscripted  forces  of  the  country 
were  being  summoned  to  the  colors. 

With  a  suddenness  that  startled  the  entire  world.  Dr. 
von  Bethmann-HoUweg,  the  German  Imperial  ChanceUor! 
resigned  on  July  14,  thus  ending  his  career  as  the  spokesman 
of  the  Kaiser,  which  he  had  maintained  for  a  sm-prisingly  long 
period.  At  the  same  time  Dr.  Alfred  Zimmermann,  Foreign 
Mmister,  who  was  responsible  for  the  correspondence  which 
revealed  the  fact  that  Germany  was  trying  to  induce  Mexico 
and  Japan  to  form  an  alliance  against  the  United  States,  also 
quit  his  post. 

The  resignation  of  the  Chancellor  came  quite  unexpect- 
edly, for  von  HoUweg,  in  the  prolonged  party  discussion  and 
heated  debates  of  the  main  committee  of  the  Reichstag  whicK 
had  been  in  progress,  seemed  to  have  triumphed  over  his 
opponents. 

His  opponents  had  been  clamoring  for  his  head,  but  he 

444 


A  GERMAN  CRISIS.  445 

made  concessions,  and  by  the  declaration  that  Germany  was 
fighting  defensively  for  her  territorial  possessions  evolved  a 
formula  which  for  a  time  seemed  satisfactory  to  both  those 
who  clamored  for  peace  by  agi-eement  and  those  who  demand- 
ed repudiation  of  the  formula,  "no  annexation  and  no  indem- 
nities." In  this  position  Dr.  von  HoUweg  was  backed  by  the 
Emperor. 

The  advent  o^  the  Crown  Prince  upon  the  scene — simi- 
moned  by  his  imperial  father  to  share  the  deliberations  affect- 
ing the  future  of  the  dynasty — seems  to  have  changed  entire- 
ly the  position  with  regard  to  the  Imperial  Chancellor.  The 
Crown  Prince  at  once  took  a  leading  part  in  the  discussions 
with  the  party  leaders,  and  his  ancient  hostility  toward  Dr. 
von  Bethmann-HoUweg,  coupled  with  his  notorious  dislike  for 
political  reform,  undoubtedly  precipitated  the  Chancellor's 
resignation. 

APPOINTMENT  OF  DR.  GEORG  MICHAELIS. 

The  resignation  of  Dr.  von  Hoilv/eg  was  followed  by  the 
appointment  of  Dr.  Georg  Michaehs,  Prussian  Under  Secre- 
tary of  Finance  and  Food  Commissioner, 

The  fall  of  Theobald  von  Bethmann-HoUweg  removed 
the  last  of  the  statesmen  who  were  in  charge  of  the  great 
Powers  of  Europe  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  and  brought 
to  an  end  a  career  which  in  successful  playing  of  both  ends 
against  the  middle  was  almost  without  parallel  in  recent 
history. 

Chancellor  von  Bethmann-HoUweg,  an  aristocrat  and 
personal  friend  of  the  Emperor,  stood  out  strongly  against 
democratic  agitation  before  the  war,  and  at  times  was  sharply 
outspoken  in  his  defiance  of  socialism  and  his  rejection  of  any 
move  toward  making  the  Chancellor  and  his  subordinates,  the 
other  Ministers,  responsible  to  the  Reichstag.  Yet  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  war  he  became  known  as  a  moderate,  and  it  has 
been  generally  accepted  that  his  influence  was  usually  em- 


446  A  GEEMAN  CEISI8. 

ployed  against  the  breaking  of  relations  with  America  and 
ruthless  submarine  warfare. 

PRESERVES  A  JUDICIOUS  BALANCE. 

When  the  opposition  of  the  parties  favoring  the  most  des- 
perate measures  became  too  strong  for  him,  he  conceded  a  little 
ground,  taking  up  a  middle  position  in  which  he  balanced  him- 
self for  a  long  time  against  both  the  Conservative  Junkers  and 
the  National  Liberal  trust  magnates  on  the  one  side  and  the 
radical  Socialists  on  the  other.  Neither  side  could  claim  him; 
neither  could  interpret  his  ambiguous  utterances  as  support  of 
its  policies,  and  between  the  antagonisms  of  the  two  he  main- 
tained his  position  until  at  last  he  was  overthrown  by  the  attack 
of  Erzberger,  leader  of  the  more  liberal  wing  of  the  Catholic 
party,  the  traditional  holders  of  the  middle  ground. 

Bethmann-HoUweg's  agility  was  demonstrated  by  the 
fact  that  he  survived  Asquith  and  Grty,  Viviani,  Sazonoff, 
Berchtold,  Salandra,  Jagow,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  statesmen 
who  were  in  power  in  Europe  in  August,  1914. 

In  personality  the  Chancellor  was  studious,  scholarly  and 
pleasant,  lacking  the  brilliance  of  his  predecessor.  Von  Bue- 
low,  but  generally  regarded  as  one  who  was  if  anything  too 
mild  rather  than  too  severe. 

Dr.  Georg  Michaelis,  the  successor  to  HoUweg,  was  the 
fii'st  commoner  to  be  appointed  to  that  high  office,  without  even 
a  "von"  before  his  name. 

The  son  of  a  Prussian  official,  he  was  born  on  September 
8 J  1857,  in  Haynan,  Silesia.  He  received  a  university  educa- 
tion, making  the  law  his  profession.  In  1879  he  became  a  court 
referee  in  Berlin,  and  in  1884  was  attached  to  the  District  At- 
torney's office  in  that  city.  Several  years  later  he  went  as  pro- 
fessor of  law  and  political  economy  to  the  University  of  Tokio. 

Returning  to  Germany  in  1889,  he  was  chosen  District 
Attorney  for  Berlin.  His  services  won  much  praise  and  he 
Rvas  afterward  sent  by  the  government  as  an  official  in  the  prQ-? 


A  GERMAN  CEISIS.  447 

visional  government  at  Trevas,  Germany.  In  1897  he  was 
transferred  to  Westphalia,  where  he  was  Chief  Councilor  for 
the  government  there. 

In  1900  he  was  made  Provisional  President  of  Liebnitz 
and  in  1902  First  Privy  Coimcilor  in  Breslau.  His  work 
there  won  him  an  appointment  as  Under  Secretary  of  State  in 
the  Department  of  Finance,  which  post  he  held  in  connection 
with  his  work  as  Food  Commissioner. 

Doctor  Michaehs  was  selected  for  the  post  of  Prussian 
Food  Commissioner  in  February,  1917,  after  all  efforts  of 
Adolph  von  Batocki's  organization — the  food  regulation  board 
—had  failed  to  lay  hands  on  large  supplies  of  grain,  potatoes 
and  other  produce  which  the  Prussian  landlords  were  holding 
for  the  fattening  of  cattle  and  swine  instead  of  making  them 
available  for  general  consumption. 

GOVERNMENT  ORDERS  DISREGARDED. 

The  orders  of  Herr  Batocki  and  the  Central  Government 
for  the  surrender  of  these  supplies  were  disregarded  or  evaded 
at  least,  if  not,  as  charged  in  Germany,  with  the  actual  assis- 
tance and  support  of  the  reactionary  Prussian  Minister  of 
Agriculture,  Baron  von  Schorlemer. 

Doctor  Michaelis  was  eventually  selected  as  Food  Con- 
troller as  the  result  of  an  agreement  between  von  Bethmann- 
HoUweg  and  the  military  authorities  as  a  fearless,  determined 
official,  who  would  execute  his  mission  without  fear  or  favor 
and  produce  results  if  such  were  possible.  The  selection  was 
justified. 

The  conditions  in  Germany  which  marked  the  ascendancy 
of  the  Crown  Prince  in  the  deliberations  of  the  Imperial  Gov- 
ernment and  brought  about  the  upheaval  in  the  Ministry  are 
the  logical  result  of  the  system  under  which  the  country  is 
ruled. 

There  is,  in  the  mind  of  the  public  generally,  a  theory  that 
Germany  with  its  Bundesrath  and  Reichstag  has  a  govern- 


448  A  GERMAN  CRISIS. 

ment  akin  to  that  of  England  and  even  the  United  States,  but 
the  impression  is  an  erroneous  one.  It  is  true  that  Germany 
has  a  dual  system  of  government  and  independent  state  sov- 
ereignties. There  is,  however,  nothing  democratic  about  the 
system. 

To  begin  v/ith,  the  Kaiser  is  a  constitutional  monarch  in 
his  capacity  as  German  Emperor,  but  as  King  of  Prussia  he  is 
a  self-appointed  and  arrogant  ruler— all  that  he  advertises 
himself  to  be  in  the  way  of  a  God-chosen  ruler. 

STATUS  OF  GERMAN  SOVEREIGNTY. 

To  understand  the  difference  in  relationship  between  the 
King  of  Prussia  and  the  German  Emperor  it  is  necessary  to 
reahze  that  the  German  constitution  describes  the  Emperor 
thus:  "The  presidency  of  the  Union  belongs  to  the  King  of 
Prussia,  who  bears  the  title  of  German  Emperor."  On  the 
other  hand  the  King  of  Prussia,  who  happens  to  be  the  Kaiser, 
has  his  right  to  rule  by  birth.  When  the  first  king  was  crowned, 
about  1701,  he  placed  the  crown  upon  his  own  head,  and  that 
right  has  descended  to  King  William.  But  as  German  Em- 
peror the  duties  of  the  Kaiser  are  as  clearly  defined  as  those 
of  the  ruler  of  a  modern  democracy. 

The  difference  between  the  Kingdom  and  the  Empire  is 
that  the  German  Empire  is  a  creation  of  sovereign  states,  ruled 
over  by  German  Grand  Dukes,  Princes,  and  whatnot,  who 
trace  their  lineage  back  to  the  days  when  might  was  right,  and 
who  won  their  power  to  rule  by  defeating  their  fellow  men. 
At  one  time  there  were  several  hundred  of  these  ruling  princes. 
When  Napoleon  got  through  in  Germany  there  were  about 
twenty-two  left.  The  German  Empire  today  consists  of  these 
twenty-two  states,  and  three  free  cities,  comprising  in  all  a 
group  of  twenty-five  communities.  It  is  a  bond  or  association. 
It  consists,  in  fact,  of  the  twenty-five  communities,  of  which 
it  is  composed,  and  represented  by  twenty-five  kings,  dukes, 
princes,  etc.,  and  not  by  the  65,000,000  population  of  the  com- 


A  GEKMAN  CRISIS.  449 

munities  themselves.  The  sovereignty  rests  with  the  princes 
of  the  several  states,  who  have  bestowed  a  fixed  power  upon 
the  Kaiser.    As  Emperor  his  office  dates  back  to  1871. 

The  legislative  machinery  which  has  been  devised  for  the 
use  of  these  German  sovereigns  consists  of  the  Bundesrath  and 
the  Reichstag.  Sometimes  the  Bundesrath  is  likened  to  our 
Senate,  or  to  the  hereditary  English  House  of  Lords,  while 
the  Reichstag  is  compared  to  the  House  of  Representatives  or 
the  House  of  Commons.    But  comparisons  are  odious. 

THE  BUNDESRATH. 

The  Bundesrath  is  an  assembly  in  which  the  German 
kingSj  grand  dukes,  dukes,  princes,  etc.,  come  together  (by 
proxy)  to  direct  the  affairs  of  the  Empire.  Each  of  these  sov- 
ereigns sends  a  specified  number  of  delegates,  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  constitution.  Thus  the  Kaiser,  as 
the  King  of  Prussia,  sends  seventeen  delegates,  while  the  King 
of  Bavaria  sends  six.  The*total  number  of  delegates  is  fifty- 
eight,  so  right  in  the  beginning  the  Kaiser  has  a  pretty  good 
representation. 

The  delegations  in  the  Bundesrath  vote  en  masse — ^that  is 
the  ''unit  rule"  prevails.  The  seventeen  delegates  from  Prus- 
sia must  vote  as  instructed  by  the  Kaiser,  and  if  there  chanced 
to  be  but  one  member  present  he  still  would  cast  seventeen 
votes  for  the  delegation.  The  members  of  the  Bundesrath  are 
referred  to  quite  frequently  as  ambassadors.  There  is  no  need 
for  discussion  in  the  body  since  the  delegations  vote,  in  any 
event,  as  a  unit. 

The  power  of  the  German  Bundesrath  is,  however,  aston- 
ishing. Usually  the  lower  house  is  supposed  to  be  the  one  in 
which  originates  legislation,  such  as  finance,  affecting  the  peo- 
ple. But  in  Germany  it  is  the  Bundesrath  which  has  the  power 
to  tax,  and  the  lower  chamber,  the  Reichstag,  merely  has  the 
vetoing  power. 


450  A  GEEMAN  CRISIS. 

This  makes  the  taxing  power  in  Germany  primarily  the 
privilege  of  the  crown. 

The  financial  program  is  prepared  by  the  Chancellor,  who 
is  the  direct  representative  of  the  Kaiser,  and  responsible  only 
to  him.  In  other  governments  members  of  the  ministry  are 
appointed  by  the  legislative  bodies,  but  the  Chancellor  is  per- 
sonally named  by  the  Kaiser,  and  is  not  even  a  member  of  the 
Reichstag.  He  has  the  right,  however,  to  address  this  body,  as 
the  privilege  of  a  member  of  the  Bimdesrath  of  which,  as  the 
personal  representative  of  the  Kaiser,  he  is  the  presiding 
oiBcer. 

Since  the  Bundesrath,  as  already  shown,  practically  con- 
trols the  German  Empire,  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  with  his 
seventeen  votes  in  the  Bundesrath  holds  sway  in  that  body,  it  is 
easy  to  see  how  the  Kaiser  is  the  dominating  figure  in  the  Ger- 
man Empire. 

THK  KAISER'S  DUAL  PREROGATIVE. 

A  unique  provision  of  the  German  constitution  is  that 
fourteen  votes  in  the  Bundesrath  can  defeat  any  proposed 
amendment,  and  since  the  Kaiser  controls  seventeen  votes,  as 
King  of  Prussia,  besides  several  others,  he  has  a  voting 
strength  which  can  block  any  attempt  to  change  the  regime. 
Also,  as  King  of  Prussia,  he  can  instruct  his  Chancellor  to 
prepare  laws  to  be  introduced  in  the  Bundesrath. 

It  is  the  power  which  the  Kaiser  possesses,  as  the  King  of 
Prussia,  which  gives  him  his  control  as  the  German  Emperor. 
Prussia  is  the  largest  of  the  German  states,  and  when  the 
Kaiser,  as  King  of  Prussia,  says  that  he  is  master  in  Prussia, 
he  speaks  the  truth. 

There  is  a  ministry  in  Prussia,  and  the  head  of  this  body 
IS  usually  the  same  person  who  occupies  the  position  of  Im- 
perial Chancellor,  and  the  Kaiser  appoints  this  Minister  as  well 
as  his  associates,  whom  he  can  remove  without  reference  to  the 
Ministry  as  a  body.    There  are  two  chambers  in  Prussian  Min- 


A  GERMAN  CRISIS.  451 

istry  commonly  known  as  the  House  of  Peers,  and  the  House 
of  Representatives. 

Just  to  give  the  King  of  Prussia  a  little  more  control,  he 
has  the  right  to  appoint  all  the  members  of  the  House  of  Peers, 
and  also  to  designate  the  number.  The  House  of  Represen- 
tatives, on  the  face  of  it,  is  a  popular  body,  because  the  members 
are  supposed  to  be  elected  by  universal  suffrage.  The  tax- 
payers vote  for  representation  in  this  chamber,  but  they  do  not 
vote  directly  nor  on  equal  terms. 

Members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  are  chosen  by 
an  electoral  college,  and  several  hundred  of  these  colleges  are 
selected  at  each  election.  Though  taxpayers  vote  for  the  elec- 
tors, all  the  votes  do  not  have  the  same  relative  value.  The 
taxpayers  whose  combined  taxes  represent  one-third  of  the 
whole  amount  of  taxes  in  an  electoral  district  choose  one-third 
of  the  members  from  that  district  to  the  House.  Those  who 
pay  the  next  one-third  of  the  taxes  choose  another  third  of  the 
electors,  and  the  remaining  body  of  voters  choose  the  last  third. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

UNCLE  SAM  AND  THE  NEUTRALS. 

President  Wilson  Puts  Embargo  on  Food  Shipments — Scandinavian  Counteies 
FuBNisHiNG  Supplies  to  Gebmany  Inspires  Order — The  Difficult  Position 
of  Noewat,  Denmark,  Holland  and  Switzerland. 

WHEN  America  first  declared  its  intentions  there  were  in 
the  United  States  thousands  who  held  to  the  theory  that 
^'America  in  War"  simply  meant  that  we  should  shut 
ourselves  withia  our  borders,  perhaps  furnish  supplies  to  the 
Allied  forces,  lend  money  to  England,  France,  Belgium  and 
Russia,  use  our  navy  to  protect  our  merchant  shipping  and  go 
about  our  business,  leaving  the  fighting  to  the  forces  joined  in 
conflict  against  Germany. 

They  were  disabused  when  the  English  and  French  Com- 
mission and  the  representatives  of  Belgium  and  Russia  made 
it  apparent  that  it  would  be  necessary  for  ^America  to  actually 
raise  a  fighting  army  and  General  Pershing  was  sent  to  France. 
But  they  learned,  too,  that  mobilizing  the  forces  of  the  country 
and  waging  warfare  were  not  simple  matters.  The  truth  was 
brought  home  that  the  whole  nation  must  fight;  that  it  must 
use  its  brains,  its  money,  its  resources  of  every  sort,  its  whole 
power,  both  in  an  offensive  and  in  a  defensive  way. 

Not  only  must  its  soldiers  and  sailors  face  the  guns  of  tKei 
Teutons,  but  the  machinery  of  government  must  be  used  to 
bring  the  arrogant  HohenzoUerns  to  their  knees.  Some  stait- 
ling  things  were  discovered,  and  the  brains  of  the  diplomatic 
force  of  the  government  were  put  to  the  test.  International 
problems  arose  which  were  never  before  encountered  in  the 
history  of  nations. 

England,  with  its  blockade  against  Germany,  and  Ger- 
many with  its  submarine  warfare  against  British  and  neutral 
shipping,  developed  problems  which  had  to  be  solved  relative 

452 


UNCLE  SAM  AND  THE  NEUTRALS.  453 

to  keeping  Germany  from  getting  supplies  which  would  en- 
able her  to  withstand  the  siege,  and  also  as  to  the  sending  of 
supplies  to  England,  Belgium,  France  and  Russia,  and  par- 
ticularly to  our  own  forces  fighting  with  the  Allies  in  France. 
A  BIG  FACTOR   IN   WAR. 
Unfortunate  as  it  may  seem,  one  of  the  biggest  factors  in 
waging  successful  war  is  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  getting 
food  suppMes.     It  is  a  frequently  repeated  truism  that  "an 
army  travels  on  its  stomach,"  and  in  the  pleas  for  conservation 
and  efficient  management  the  leaders  in  every  country  declared 
frequently  that  "the  war  would  be  won  by  the  last  loaf  of 
bread,"  or  that  it  was  not  a  question  of  ammunition,  but  of 
wheat. 

One  of  the  serious  problems  which  the  government  was 
therefore  called  to  face  within  a  very  short  period  after  the 
American  troops  were  first  landed  in  France  was  that  of  deal- 
ing with  the  food  situation,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  At  that 
time  the  German  U-boats  had  sunk  merchant  ships  having  a 
total  of  more  than  5,000,000  tonnage,  and  the  food  situation 
was  precarious  in  the  Allied  countries.  Germany,  on  the  other 
hand,  because  of  long  preparation  for  the  struggle,  coupled 
with  efficient  management  and  practices,  was  more  largely 
independent  of  other  countries> 

At  this  time  it  was  learned  that  Germany  was  securing 
large  quantities  of  foodstuffs  through  the  medium  of  some  of 
the  neutral  countries.  America  vv^as,  therefore,  called  upon  to 
take  steps  to  prevent  the  Germans  getting  supplies  from  this 
country,  through  the  intermediary  of  Holland  and  the  Scandi- 
navian countries.  As  a  result  the  government  placed  an  em- 
bargo on  a  long  list  of  articles  including  fuel,  oils,  grains, 
meats  and  fodder.  The  embargo,  which  was  made  effective  by 
a  proclamation  of  President  Wilson,  forbade  the  carrying  of 
such  supplies  as  were  mentioned  from  the  United  States  or  its 
territorial  possessions  to  neutral  coimtries. 


454  UNCLE  SAM  AND  THE  NEUTRALS. 

The  purpose  of  the  embargo  was  not  to  prevent  the  neu- 
tral countries  from  securing  foodstuffs  from  America  for  their 
own  consumption,  but  to  prevent  their  reselling  such  supplies 
at  a  profit  to  Germany.  The  position  of  the  government  was 
made  plain  in  the  statement  of  President  Wilson,  who  said: 
DOMESTIC  AND  FOREIGN  NEEDS. 

**It  IS  obviously  the  duty  of  the  United  States  in  liberating 
any  surplus  products  over  and  above  our  own  domestic  needs 
to  consider  first  the  necessities  of  all  the  nations  engaged  in 
war  against  the  central  empires.  As  to  neutral  nations,  how- 
ever, we  also  recognize  our  duty.  The  government  does  not 
wish  to  hamper  them.  On  the  contrary,  it  wishes  and  intends, 
by  all  fair  and  equitable  means,  to  co-operate  with  them  in  their 
difficult  task  of  adding  from  our  available  surpluses  to  their 
own  domestic  supply  and  of  meeting  their  pressing  necessities 
or  deficits.  In  considering  the  deficits  of  food  supplies,  the 
government  means  only  to  fulfill  its  obvious  obligation  to  as- 
sure itself  that  neutrals  are  husbanding  their  own  resources, 
and  that  our  supplies  will  not  become  available,  either  directly 
or  indirectly,  to  feed  the  enemy." 

While  the  conservation  of  our  resources  had  a  great  deal 
to  do  with  the  issuing  of  the  embargo,  the  action  was  partly 
taken  as  the  result  of  information  lodged  by  England  that 
Holland,  Sweden  and  Norway  had  been  supplying  Germany 
and  her  alhes  with  food,  despite  the  latter's  hostile  action  in 
sinking  ships  owned  by  the  neutrals.  The  government  made 
an  investigation  and  discovered  that  the  shipment  to  these  neu- 
tral countries-  had  become  abnormally  large.  It  was  reported, 
particularly,  that  many  Holland  business  men  had  become 
fabulously  wealthy  by  trading  in  the  supplies  which  came  from 
America,  and  which  they  resold  to  Germany. 

The  embargo  became  operative  under  a  method  of  license 
procedure,  so  that  all  shipments  could  be  watched  by  the  gov- 
ernment authorities.    The  order  compelled  all  persons  seeking 


UNCLE  SAM  AND  THE  NEUTRALS.  455 

to  export  goods  to  make  application  for  a  license  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  Commerce,  or  bureaus  designated  in  various  parts  of 
the  country. 

In  support  of  the  contentions  that  Ihe  neutral  countries 
were  supplying  Germany,  Great  Britain  furnished  the  Gov- 
ernment with  the  following  table  as  representing  the  minimum 
of  food  exports  from  Scandinavia  and  Holland  to  Germany 
in  1916:  Butter,  82,600  metric  tons;  meat,  115,800  tons;  pork 
products,  68,800  tons;  condensed  milk,  70,000  tons;  fish,  407 
tons;  cheese,  80,500  tons;  eggs,  46,400  tons;  potato  meal,  179,- 
500  tons;  coffee,  58,500  tons;  fruit,  74,000  tons;  sugar,  12,000 
tons;  vegetables,  215,000. 

These  figures  are  most  impressive,  it  is  asserted,  in  rela- 
tion to  fats,  the  scarcest  thing  in  Germany.  Fat,  it  is  claimed, 
is  the  only  food  seriously  lacking  now  in  the  diet  of  the  Ger- 
man people.  Imports  of  this  food,  the  British  declare,  furnish 
one-fourth  of  the  daily  German  fat  ration. 

NATIONS  WHO  SUFFER  FROM  EMBARGO. 

There  are  five  neutral  countries  whose  positions  were  any- 
thing but  enviable  during  the  war,  and  it  is  perhaps  worth 
interpolating  a  httle  something  about  them  at  this  particular 
point.  Norway,  Sweden,  Holland,  Denmark  and  Switzerland 
were  the  neutrals  at  the  time  the  embargo  was  placed  on 
foodstuffs. 

Switzerland,  as  all  the  world  knows,  is  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  countries  in  Europe,  and  is  a  republic  in  the  west 
central  part  of  the  continent,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Baden, 
Wmi;emburg  and  Bavaria;  on  the  east  by  the  Tyrol,  on  the 
south  by  Italy  and  on  the  west  by  France.  There  is  no  na- 
tional tongue,  three  languages  being  spoken  within  the  bound- 
aries of  the  republic.  Where  it  comes  in  contact  with  the 
French  frontier,  the  French  language  is  largely  spoken;  while 
Italian  is  the  language  spoken  in  the  southern  part,  where  it 
is  bounded  by  Italy.     In  the  northern  section  the  German 


456  UNCLE  SAM  AND  THE  NEUTRALS. 

language  is  spoken.    The  country  has  an  area  of  15,992  square 
miles. 

In  the  main,  Switzerland  is  mountainous,  the  chief  val- 
ley being  that  of  the  Rhone,  in  the  southern  part.  The  most 
level  tracts  are  in  the  northwestern  section,  where  there  are  a 
number  of  moimtain-locked  valleys.  Mountain  slopes  com- 
prise about  two-fifths  of  the  area  of  the  country,  and  prac- 
tically all  of  the  rivers  are  rapid  and  unnavigable.  The  forests 
are  extensive  and  consist  of  large  trees.  Cereals,  along  with 
hemp,  flax  and  tobacco,  are  raised,  and  the  pasture  lands  are 
fertile  and  abundant.  Hence,  the  dairy  products,  as  well  as 
hides  and  tallow,  are  produced  in  profusion.  Fruits  of  the 
hardier  varieties  grow  well  and  profitably. 

A  FEDERAL  UNION. 

The  repubhc  consists  of  twenty-two  States  or  Cantons 
which  form  a  Federal  Union,  although  each  is  virtually  inde- 
pendent in  matters  of  pohtics.  The  Swiss  Constitution,  re- 
modelled in  1848,  vests  the  ruling  executive  and  legislative 
authority  in  a  Diet  of  two  houses — a  State  Council  and  a 
National  Council.  The  former  consists  of  44!  members — two 
from  each  Canton — and  corresponds  in  its  functional  action 
with  the  United  States  Senate.  The  National  Council  is  the 
more  purely  representative  body,  and  is  composed  of  128  mem- 
bers elected  triennially  by  popular  suifrage.  Both  chambers 
combine  and  form  what  is  called  the  Federal  Assembly. 

The  chief  executive  power  is  exercised  by  the  so-called 
Federal  Council,  or  Bundesgericht,  which  is  elected  trienni- 
ally. Its  governing  officers  are  the  President  and  Vice  Presi- 
dent of  the  republic.  International  and  inter-cantonal  ques- 
tions are  discussed  before  and  adjudicated  by  the  Bundes- 
gericht, which  serves  as  a  high  court  of  appeal.  The  army 
consists  of  142,999  regulars  and  91,809  landwehr;  total,  231,- 
808  men  of  all  arms.     Every  adult  citizen  is  de  facto  liable 


UNCLE  SAM  AND  THE  NEUTRALS.  457 

to  military  service,  and  military  drill  and  discipline  are  taught 
in  all  the  schools.  The  Protestant  faith  forms  the  ruling  form 
of  religion  in  15  of  the  cantons,  Roman  Cathohcism  prevailing 
in  the  rest.  Education  is  well  diffused  by  numerous  colleges 
and  schools  of  a  high  grade;  and  its  upper  branches  are  cared 
for  at  the  three  universities  of  Berne,  Basle  and  Zurich. 

Denmark,  whose  home  possessions  comprise  14,789  square 
miles,  is,  by  the  way,  barely  one-half  the  size  of  Scotland.  It 
consists  of  a  peninsular  portion  called  Jutland,  and  an  exten- 
sive archipelago  lying  east  of  it.  It  has  a  number  of  territorial 
possessions  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  among  them  the  islands  of 
Iceland,  Greenland  and  the  Faroe  islands  in  the  north. 
GERMAN  AMBITION  FRUSTRATED. 

One  of  its  possessions  in  the  West  Indies  was  purchased 
by  the  United  States  almost  at  the  time  America  entered  the 
war,  and  created  a  situation  which  was  not  calculated  to  inspire 
the  friendship  of  Germany  for  the  little  country,  since  it  was 
intimated  that  Germany  would  liked  to  have  had  the  island 
for  a  base.  The  islands  cost  the  United  States  about  $25,000,- 
000.  Including  the  colonial  possessions,  the  total  area  of  the 
Danish  possessions  is  80,000  square  miles,  the  population  be- 
ing 2,726,000  persons. 

Copenhagen  is  the  capital,  the  other  chief  cities  being 
Odense,  Aarhuus,  Aalborg,  Banders  and  Horsens.  For  ad- 
ministrative purposes  Denmark  is  divided  into  18  provinces 
or  districts,  besides  the  capital,  nine  of  these  making  up  Jut- 
land and  the  other  nine  comprising  the  island  possessions.  On 
the  south  Denmark  is  bounded  by  Germany  and  the  Baltic, 
on  the  west  it  is  washed  by  the  North  Sea;  while  to  the  north 
Hes  Norway,  separated  by  the  Skagerrack,  and  on  the  east 
lies  Sweden,  separated  by  the  Cattegat  and  the  Sound. 

The  line  of  seaboard  is  irregular  and  broken,  and  the  low, 
flat  nature  of  the  country  necessitates  the  construction  of  dykes, 
in  many  places,  in  order  to  prevent  the  ocean  from  making 


458  UNCLE  SAM  AND  THE  NEUTRALS. 

inroads.  There  are  few  rivers,  and  these  are  small  and  not 
of  value  commercially.  Timber  is  not  abundant,  and  minerals 
are  scarce  and  of  little  value.  The  climate  is  generally  moist 
and  cold,  fogs  are  frequent  and  the  winters  generally  severe. 
Cereals,  potatoes,  wool  and  dairy  products  are  the  principal 
products.  Cattle  raising  is  carried  on  extensively,  much  of 
the  beef  being  exported. 

The  Danes,  physically,  are  sturdy,  and  represent  the 
truest  physical  characteristics  of  Scandinavian  types.  The 
people  are  brave,  sober  and  industrious,  and  the  sailors  from 
this  country  are  among  the  leading  navigators  of  the  world. 
The  government  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  with  the  execu- 
tive power  vested  in  a  king  and  a  ministry,  who  are  held 
responsible  to  the  Rigsdag,  which  is  the  parliament. 

LANDSTHING  AND  FOLKSTHING. 

This  parliament  consists  of  a  Senate,  or  Landsthing,  and 
a  lower  house,  or  Folksthing.  The  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church  is  the  State  religion,  but  all  other  persuasions  are  fully 
and  freely  tolerated.  Education  is  compulsory,  and  is  largely 
disseminated.  The  army  consists  of  60,000  men,  while  the 
navy  is  quite  small,  having  a  personnel  of  about  4000  officers 
and  men. 

The  authentic  history  dates  from  1385,  the  year  of  the 
accession  of  Margaret,  the  "Semiramis  of  the  North,"  and 
wearer  of  the  triple  Scandinavian  crowns.  The  latest  mon- 
arch, Frederick  VIII,  came  to  the  throne  in  1906. 

Holland,  the  most  picturesque  of  the  neutral  countries, 
aside  from  Switzerland  with  its  wonderful  scenery,  is  credited 
with  having  profited  very  largely  by  the  war.  It  rests  along 
the  North  Sea  and  adjoins  the  German  Empire  on  the  east 
and  borders  Belgium  on  the  South.  It  contains  about  11  prov- 
inces, with  a  total  area  of  12,582  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of  about  6,000,000. 

Always  one  thinks  of  windmills,  dykes,  fat  cattle,  butter, 


UNCLE  SAM  AND  THE  NEUTKALS.  459 

eggs,  ducks  and  green  farms  when  Holland  is  mentioned,  and 
it  is  in  many  respects  one  of  the  most  highly  developed  com- 
mercial comitries  in  the  world.  The  country  manufactures 
many  articles  of  world-wide  distribution,  including  chocolate, 
linens,  fine  damasks,  pottery,  chemical  and  pharmaceutical 
products,  and  Amsterdam  is  a  center  of  diamond-cutting. 

It  has  a  large  mercantile  marine  and  was  at  one  time  a 
termendous  maritime  power,  doing  an  immense  trading  busi- 
ness in  many  waters.  It  still  has  rich  and  extensive  colonies, 
including  the  Dutch  possessions  in  the  East  Indies,  compris- 
ing the  Sunda  Islands,  except  a  portion  of  Borneo  and  Eastern 
Timor,  and  New  Guinea.  Java  and  Madura  are  two  of  the 
richest  of  the  group  and  have  a  population  of  more  than 
30,000,000.  There  are  also  possessions  in  the  West  Indies  and 
in  South  America. 

A  SMALL  BUT  EFFICIENT  ARMY. 

The  Dutch  army  has  approximate!}^  40,000  officers  and 
men  and  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  efficient  armies  in  the 
world  of  its  size.  There  is  also  a  colonial  army  in  the  East 
Indies  with  1300  officers  and  35,183  men.  Its  navy  has  4000 
officers  and  men  and  has  about  200  vessels  of  all  sorts,  none 
of  them  of  the  modern  dreadnought  or  super-dreadnought  type. 

The  history  of  the  rich  little  country  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  in  literature.  It  was  originally  part  of  the  Empire 
of  Charlemagne.  Subsequently,  it  became  divided  into  a  num- 
ber of  petty  principahties,  and  by  heritage  became  a  posses- 
sion of  the  Austrian  monarchy.  In  the  long  struggle  against 
the  Spanish  power  it  became  one  of  the  Seven  United  Prov- 
inces. The  country  made  rapid  progress,  and  during  the  17th 
century  withstood  the  power  of  Louis  the  XIV  of  France, 
but  later  was  overrun  by  the  French,  and  finally  in  1806  was 
made  a  kingdom  by  Napoleon,  in  favor  of  his  brother  Louis. 
lT;nder  the  Treaty  of  Paris  Belgium  and  Holland  were  united 
to  form  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  and  this  arrange- 


460  UNCLE  SAM  AND  THE  NEUTRALS. 

ment  remained  until  1830,  when  Belgium  broke  away.  Hol- 
land attempted  to  reduce  the  revolting  province  by  force,  but 
the  powers  intervened  and  an  adjustment  was  made.  The 
last  King  was  William,  III,  who  died  in  1890,  leaving  his 
daughter  Wilhelmina,  then  but  10  years  old.  Queen. 

Of  the  neutral  countries  none  endured  more  than  heroic 
Norway.  With  a  long  coast  line  practically  undefended  and 
with  the  full  force  of  the  German  navy  anchored  but  a  few 
hours  away,  and  a  none  too  friendly  country  on  her  land  bor- 
der, possessing  an  army  greater  than  her  own,  Norway's  posi- 
tion was  extremely  difficult. 

Had  she  flung  herself  into  the  war  with  the  Allies  when 
the  breach  came  she  would  have  been  of  little  help  to  them, 
for  she  would  have  placed  them  in  the  position  of  being  called 
upon  to  help  defend  her  long  coast  line.  It  is  probable  also 
that  a  break  with  Germany  would  have  let  loose  the  Swedish 
army  on  the  side  of  the  Teutons. 

BETWEEN  TWO  FIRES. 

The  little  country  was  between  two  fires,  and  she  suffered 
great  strain.  In  the  first  place,  while  Norway  attempted  to 
maintain  her  export  trade  and  her  shipping,  the  Allies  in- 
spected her  import  invoices  and  subjected  her  to  much  an- 
noyance, while  Germany,  without  provocation,  ruthlessly  at- 
tacked her  merchant  ships  and  sent  many  of  them  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ocean. 

There  were  intimations  that  Germany's  real  intent  was 
to  precipitate  a  rupture  which  would  justify  her  attack  on  the 
little  country,  which  she  would  be  able  to  subdue  with  ease 
and  seize  the  rugged  coast  and  ports  of  vantage.  But  Nor- 
way remained  neutral,  and  was  not  at  all  pleased  with  the 
embargo  placed  upon  shipments  by  the  United  States,  though 
it  developed  that  the  restrictions  would  not  prevent  the  coun- 
try from  getting  its  share  of  grain  and  other  supplies  from 
America. 


UNCLE  SAM  AND  THE  NEUTRALS.  461 

Norway  is  the  western  portion  of  the  Scandinavian  penin- 
sula, and  has  an  area  of  about  125,000  square  miles.  Its 
northern  coast  is  washed  by  the  cold  waters  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  and  against  the  northeast  is  Lapland,  while  Sweden 
bounds  it  on  the  east  and  the  famed  North  Sea  on  the  south 
and  the  broad  Atlantic  on  the  west. 

The  rugged  country  is  separated  from  Sweden  by  the 
Kiolen,  or  the  Great  Scandinavian  chain  of  mountains,  and 
in  the  hills  and  mountains  are  fomid  the  wonderful  Norway 
spruce  and  fir  trees  familiar  in  commerce.  Its  fisheries  and 
shipbuilding  industry  are  also  of  great  importance  in  the  world 
of  business. 

DEMOCRACY  OF  NORWAY, 

The  constitution  of  Norway  is  one  of  the  most  Democratic 
in  all  Europe.  Although  a  monarchy,  its  executive  and  legis- 
lative power  is  vested  in  the  parhament,  called  the  Storthing, 
and  the  King  has  merely  a  nominal  command  over  the  army 
and  navy,  with  power  to  appoint  the  governor-general  only. 
The  latter  has  a  limited  right  to  veto  acts  of  the  parliament. 
Hereditary  nobility  was  abolished  in  1821. 

Under  the  treaty  of  Vienna  in  1814,  and  following  the 
defeat  of  Napoleon,  it  was  arranged  that  Denmark  must  give 
up  Norway,  and  the  two  countries  were  united  under  the 
Swedish  Crown.  Norway  demanded  a  separate  consular  ser- 
vice in  1905,  and  the  Storthing  declared  the  union  with  Sweden 
at  an  end.  Prince  Charles  of  Denmark  then  became  King, 
reigning  as  Haakon  VII. 

The  country  has  a  population  of  2,340,000,  and  her  full 
military  force  mobihzed  for  war  is  only  110,000  men. 

Sweden,  Norway's  next-door  neighbor  on  the  Scandina- 
vian peninsula,  in  contradistinction  to  the  latter,  is  a  consti- 
tutional monarchy,  with  extraordinary  powers  vested  in  the 
King,  who  is  assisted  in  the  administration  of  afl^airs  by  a 
council  of  ministers.  The  Diet,  or  legislature,  consists  of  two 
chambers,  or  estates,  both  elected  by  the  people. 


462  UNCLE  SAM  AND  THE  NEUTRALS. 

Like  Norway,  the  country  is  very  rugged.  Lapland  and 
Finland  are  at  the  northeast,  and  on  the  east  is  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia  and  the  Baltic,  and  on  the  south  the  Baltic,  the  Sound 
and  the  Cattegat.  It  joins  Nbrway  on  the  west.  Its  area  is 
172,875  square  miles,  and  its  coast  line  is  more  than  1400  miles 
long. 

Sweden,  while  it  does  not  have  a  first-class  navy,  possesses 
a  score  of  armored  vessels  of  small  displacement,  besides  tor- 
pedo boats,  destroyers,  etc.,  and  has  an  army  of  40,000  at 
peace  strength.  The  country  is  particularly  rich  in  minerals, 
and  some  of  the  finest  iron  ore  in  the  world  comes  from  its 
mines.  Nickel,  lead,  cobalt,  alum  and  sulphur  are  also  pro- 
duced in  large  quantities;  while  it  gives  to  the  world,  too, 
immense  quantities  of  lumber  and  larger  quantities  of  hemp 
flax  and  hops.  ' 

The  reigning  monarch  is  King  Gustavus  V,  who  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Oscar  II,  who  died  in  1907.  The  population 
of  the  country  is  about  5,000,000. 

Of  these  neutrals,  both  Holland  and  Switzerland  did  a 
great  deal  for  the  suffermg  Belgians  when  Germany  pounded 
through  the  country  of  King  Albert,  sending  money  for  the 
relief  of  the  sufferers  and  offering  refugees  shelter. 


\  CHAPTER  XXVn. 

THE  ACTIONS  OF  THE  WAR. 

Feom  Bosnia  to  Flandees — Maene  the  Tuening  Point  of  the  Conflict — ^The 
Conquests  of  Seevia  and  Eumania— The  Fall  op  Bagdad— RussLi's 
Women  Soldiees — ^Ameeica's  Conscripts. 

THE  end  of  August,  1917,  found  twenty-one  nations  in  a 
state  of  war  and  five  in  what  might  be  termed  a  condition 
of   modified   neutrahty,   with   nearly   40,000,000    sum- 
moned to  arms  and  5,000,000  killed  in  bitter  warfare. 

This  was  the  fiery  reflection  of  the  shots  which  caused  the 
death  of  the  Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand,  of  Austria,  in  the 
quiet  little  town  of  Serajevo,  the  capital  of  Bosnia,  in  June, 
1914.  And  so,  with  their  backs  to  the  wall,  Austria-Hungary, 
Germany,  Turkey  and  Bulgaria  faced  Servia,  Russia,  France, 
Belgium,  Great  Britain,  Montenegro,  Japan,  Italy,  Portugal, 
Bumania,  the  United  States,  Cuba,  Brazil,  Greece,  Siam, 
China  and  little  Liberia,  while  Guatemala,  Panama,  Haiti, 
Uruguay  and  Bolivia  stood  by  in  a  position  of  neutrality,  but 
for  the  most  part  indicating  a  willingness  to  help  the  Allies. 

And  in  those  elapsed  three  years  after  the  Bosnia  tragedy 
an  Emperor  of  Austria  had  died;  a  Czar  had  stepped  from  his 
throne,  and  a  King  had  been  compelled  to  toss  aside  his  crown. 
Prime  Ministers  and  Ministers  of  War  in  all  of  the  principal 
countries,  who  held  the  confidence  of  their  peoples  when  the 
war  started,  were  no  more. 

Cabinets  had  been  dissolved  and  new  ones  set  up,  states- 
men brushed  aside  and  commanders  of  the  war  forces  com- 
pelled to  step  out  that  others  might  carry  on  the  battles. 

Though  it  was  Austria's  ultimatum  to  Servia  which  pre- 
cipitated the  world-wide  struggle,  it  was  Germany  that  took 
the  first  step  and  crossed  the  French  frontier  with  its  armed 
forces.   After  Servia  refused  to  accede  to  all  of  the  demands 

463 


464  THE  ACTIONS  OF  THE  WAR. 

of  Austria-Hungary  and  war  had  formally  been  declared  by 
the  latter  country,  Russia  began  a  partial  mobilization  of  her 
armed  forces,  since  she  had  given  warning  that  she  would 
extend  protection  to  Servia.  Germany  retaliated  by  calling 
together  her  warring  forces  and  declaring  war  on  the  Czar; 
France  came  to  Russia's  aid.  Then  when  Belgium  refused  to 
permit  the  German  army  to  pass  through  the  country  and 
Germany  disregarded  international  treaties  and  invaded  the 
territory,  Great  Britain  declared  war  upon  the  Kaiser,  and 
Montenegro  aligned  itself  v/ith  the  Allies. 

GERMANY'S  DESIGNS  ON  PARIS. 

Germany's  action  and  subsequent  events  prove  that  the 
war  lords  had  planned  to  capture  Paris  by  a  swift  attack  from 
the  north,  before  France  could  gather  het  forces  to  resist  and 
before  Russia  was  prepared  to  assist.  Belgium,  however, 
proved  a  stumbling  block.  The  natives,  battling  like  demons 
for  the  protection  of  their  homes  and  honor,  held  the  Teuton 
hordes  at  Liege  for  several  weeks,  or  until  the  famous  forti- 
fications there  were  reduced,  and  then  the  terrible  machine  of 
the  Germans  swept  forward  until  the  soldiers  rveie  within  fif- 
teen miles  of  the  French  capital. 

It  was  here,  within  a  few  hours^  march  of  Paris,  that  the 
French  and  Alhed  troops  showed  their  real  metal.  General 
Joffre  met  the  German  hordes  beside  the  River  Marne  and 
with  his  troops  began  the  battle  which  was  to  guarantee  the 
security  of  the  French  capital  and  result  in  the  routing  of  the 
army  of  Von  Kluck,  regarded  as  the  pick  of  the  Prussian 
forces.  In  the  famed  battle  of  the  Marne  there  were  fought  a 
number  of  separate  engagements,  which  have  been  termed  the 
battles  of  Meaux,  Sezanne,  Vitry  and  Argonne, 

The  German  forces  were  driven  back  step  by  step  to  the 
north  bank  of  the  Aisne,  where  the  army  was  able  to  entrench 
itself  and  the  Germans  and  the  Allied  forces  began  digging 


THE  ACTIONS  OF  THE  WAR.  465 

themselves  into  the  ground  in  a  manner  that  had  never  before 
been  practised  in  warfare. 

While  Germany  was  striking  at  France,  the  Russians  had 
invaded  Austria,  capturing  Tarnapol  and  Lemberg  and  in- 
vesting the  great  fortress  of  Prezemsyl.  Austria  was  com- 
pelled to  call  upon  Germany  for  assistance  and  four  German 
army  corps,  under  Von  Hindenburg,  were  dra^vn  from  East 
Prussia  and  went  to  the  rescue.  Instead  of  trying  to  stem  the 
progress  of  the  Russians,  he  made  a  counter  offensive  with 
Warsaw  as  the  objective.  Russia  was  compelled  for  a  time 
to  abandon  its  positions  and  retreat,  and  Von  Hindenburg  got 
within  seven  miles  of  Warsaw  before  the  Russians  rode  down 
upon  his  forces  with  100,000  horsemen  and  compelled  retreat. 
Von  Hindenburg's  strategy  had,  however,  been  successful,  and 
his  action  on  the  Eastern  front  at  this  time  marked  the  first 
step  toward  his  pre-eminence  as  a  military  commander. 

BRITISH  AND  GERMAN  FORCES  COMPARED. 

During  1915  the  Alhed  forces  were  able  to  do  little  more 
than  hold  their  positions.     Lord  Kitchener  had  builded  up  a 
British  volunteer  army  in  which  great  hopes  were  placed,  but 
in  the  matter  of  offensive  miUtary  tactics  they  could  not  cope 
with  the  formidable  German  forces,  nor  had  the  Allies  devel- 
oped an  offensive  which  would  win  without  terrible  sacrifice, 
and  in  the  encounters  the  very  flower  of  Great  Britain's  m.an- 
hood,  as  well  as  thousands  of  the  best  fighting  men  of  France, 
were  lost  to  the  world  forever.     It  was  in  this  year,  when  Ger- 
many made  use  of  asphyxiating  gas  for  the  first  time,  that 
Canada  received  its  most  stinging  blow.    The  famous  Princess 
Pats,  the  finest  military  body  of  the  Dominion,  was  practically 
annihilated,  and  in  the  final  formidable  attack  of  the  year  made 
by  the  French  against  the  Germans  in  September,  the  latter 
were  driven  back  several  miles,  but  at  a  cost  of  more  than 
100,000  French  lives. 


466  THE  ACTIONS  OP  THE  WAR.  / 

In  this  year,  too,  the  Germans  succeeded  in  capturino- 
much  terntory  and  a  munber  of  valuable  position^  whklTf 
been  taken  by  the  Russians,  and  the  combmed  forceTof  Von 
Hmdenburg  and  Von  Mackensen  finally  conquered  Poknd 
Warsaw  was  evacuated  m  July,  and  in  Au^st  Prince  Leopold 
led  the  Bavarian  into  the  Polish  capital.  On  August  19  the 
great  stronghold  of  Kovno  fell,  and  the  conquest^!  Lde 
complete  with  the  surrender  of  Brest-Litovsk. 

CONQUEST  OF  SERVIA. 
The  conquest  of  Servia  by  the  Teutons  also  marked  the 
bvThe  f  ,^«^i«-f-t  «hots  of  the  war  were  those  fired 
by  the  Austrians  when  they  bombarded  Belgrade,  the  capital 
of  Servia,  and  made  an  attempt  to  invade  the  comitry.     The 
Semans  and  Montenegrins  ahnost  annihilated  Austrian  troops 
which  attempted  to  cross  the  Danube  into  Servia,  and  the  Aus- 
trian invasion  fell.    But  the  combined  Austro-German  forces 
invaded  the  comitry  later  as  part  of  the  Prussian  program  to 
conquer  all  the  territory  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Bosporus     The 
±.ntente  Allies  made  an  effort  to  save  the  little  country  by  land- 
mg  troops  at  Salonica,  but  it  was  too  late.     Just  before  winter 
set  m,  the  Austro-German  forces  and  the  Bulgarian  forces 
mvading  from  opposite  sides,  met,  and  the  conquest  of  the 
country  was  complete. 

It  was  in  1915,  too,  that  what  is  conceded  to  have  been 
one  of  the  most  disastrous  and  futile  campaigns  of  the  war  was 
attempted  by  England.  Constantinople  was  to  be  captured 
and  the  Turks  crushed,  with  a  view  of  opening  communication 
with  Russia  by  way  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  British  fleet  was 
sent  out  to  bombard  the  Dardanelles,  and  the  now  famous 
Anzacs— Australian  and  New  Zealand  troops— were  landed 
on  the  penmsula  of  Gallipoli  to  strike  at  the  Turkish  capital 
trom  behind.  The  campaign  was  waged  through  the  summer, 
but  with  little  hope  of  success,  and  finally  abandoned  after  the 


THE  ACTIONS  OF  THE  WAR  467 

British  had  lost  more  than  100,000  of  its  most  daring,  hard- 
fighting  and  loyal  Colonial  soldiers. 

After  this  came  'Terdun''— that  conflict  in  which  France 
won  immortal  glory  and  the  German's  attack  upon  the  French 
fortress  town  of  Verdun  was  successfully  repulsed.  The  battle 
raged  for  four  months,  beginning  in  February,  1916.  The 
German  troops,  with  the  German  Crown  Prince  in  command, 
captured  two  forts  close  to  Verdun,  but  little  by  little  the 
French  troops  drove  them  back,  and  finally,  in  command  of 
General  Nivelle,  with  General  Petain  looking  after  the  de- 
fense of  Verdun,  the  French,  co-operating  with  the  British, 
made  an  attack  on  the  Somme,  and  the  Germans  were  com- 
pelled to  abandon  the  Verdun  offensive.  In  the  Verdun  cam- 
paign the  Germans  lost  more  than  500,000  men,  while  the 
French  lost  not  half  the  nimiber. 

RUSSIA'S  CONQUEST  OF  ARMENIA. 

Russia's  conquest  of  Armenia  was  one  of  the  features  of 
1916.  The  troops  xmder  General  Brussiloff  renewed  their  en- 
deavors in  Galicia  and  for  several  months  made  great  progress; 
then  Rumania  entered  the  war  and  the  Russian  forces  m  Galicia 
slowed  down.  In  Caucasus,  however,  Russian  troops  gained 
Erzerum,  one  of  the  Turk  fortresses,  and  captured  the  seaport 
of  Trebizond,  practically  gaining  Armenia.  Like  the  Germans 
in  retreat  from  Flanders,  the  Turks  practiced  unspeakable 
horrors.  Their  cruelties  were  such  as  to  almost  exterminate 
the  race. 

The  tragedy  of  the  Balkans  in  1916  was  Rumania.  With 
an  army  of  more  than  half  a  million  men,  she  entered  the  war 
with  the  approval  of  the  Entente  and  entered  Transylvania. 
But  the  Germans  began  a  counter-attack  in  Dobrudja,  and  the 
Rumanians  were  compelled  to  withdraw  some  of  their  forces 
from  Transylvania.  The  German  commander  then  threw  his 
forces  across  the  remaining  Rumanians  and  drove  them  across 
the  border,  after  which  he  swimg  his  own  troops  through  the 


468  THE  ACTIONS  OF  THE  WAR. 

mountain  passes  into  Rumania.  The  two  German  forces  in- 
v-admg  Rumania  met  at  Bucharest,  and  the  Rumanian  capital 
was  occupied.  •  ^ 

Another  fiasco  was  that  of  the  British  expeditionary  force 
which  was  sent  from  India  by  way  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  up 
the  Tigris  river  to  Bagdad.  General  Townsend  succeeded  in 
gettmg  withm  15  miles  of  Bagdad,  but  he  was  defeated  by  a 
superior  Turkish  force  and  compelled  to  fall  back  to  Kut-el- 
Amara.  Here  his  inadequate  force,  lacking  medical  and  trans- 
port facihties,  was  fairly  starved  out  before  he  was  relieved 
He  was  finally  compelled  to  surrender  the  last  week  in  April, 
jLy  j.o» 

Little  more  than  a  year  after  the  collapse  of  this  expedi- 
tion,  however,  the  famous  old  city  of  Bagdad  was  captured  by 
the  Enghsh  atfter  a  well-directed  campaign  imder  General 
Maude. 

ITALY'S  HELP  TO  THE  ALLIES. 

Italy,  having  begun  active  warfare  with  the  Allies  in  1915, 
waged  war  along  the  Austrian  border,  compelling  the  Austro- 
German  forces  to  concentrate  a  larger  body  of  troops  for  duty 
on  the  Italian  frontier,  and  to  that  extent  materially  assisted 
the  Alhes.  At  the  same  time  the  Italians  fought  their  way 
up  over  the  mountains  and  vfon  more  than  500  square  miles 
of  territory  and  took  nearly  90,000  prisoners. 

The  final  alignment  of  the  Greeks  with  the  AUies  marked 
the  progress  of  affairs  in  the  middle  of  1917,  when  Constantine 
was  forced  from  his  throne  in  favor  of  his  second  son,  and 
Venizelos  was  returned  as  Premier.  But  the  entrance  of  the 
Greeks  did  not  materially  alter  the  situation. 

The  two  most  important  events  of  1917  were  the  entrance 
of  America  into  the  conflict  and  the  revolt  in  Russia,  which 
caused  the  abdication  of  the  Czar  and  turned  the  great  country 
into  a  republic.  The  ultimate  in  Russia's  history  is  still  to  be 
written,  but  the  change  was  fraught  with  disaster.     The  people 


THE  ACTIONS  OF  THE  WAR.  469 

let  free,  and  unaccustomed  to  self-government,  could  not  be 
controlled,  and  the  army  became  demoralized. 

The  element  which  had  been  loyal  to  the  Romanoffs  re- 
fused to  fight  for  liberty,  and  the  Germans,  taking  advantage 
of  the  situation,  drove  the  Russian  troops  back  over  the  fron- 
tiers and  gained  all  that  the  Russians  had  once  taken  in  conflict. 
And  out  of  this  grew  one  of  the  most  picturesque  incidents  of 
the  entire  war.  Russian  women  and  girls,  filled  with  ideals 
and  with  a  deep  sense  of  the  responsibilities  which  rested  upon 
the  nation,  formed  a  corps,  and,  dressed  in  full  military  cos- 
tume, went  to  the  front  and  attacked  the  German  troops.  No 
soldiers  of  any  nation  have  shown  more  heroism,  or  more  capa- 
bihty,  for  the  women  faced  the  bullets,  and,  while  they  were 
being  mowed  down  by  the  German  guns,  they  urged  their  men 
to  face  the  enemy  and  fight — fight — fight. 

BRITISH  NAVY  AN  EFFECTIVE  ASSET. 

While  there  have  been  few  of  the  picturesque  battles  on 
the  seas,  which  the  world  has  long  regarded  as  a  necessary 
adjunct  to  a  successful  war,  the  work  of  the  British  Navy  has 
proved  through  the  period  of  the  conflict  to  be  one  of  the  most 
powerful  and  effective  assets  of  the  Allied  forces.  Through 
the  operation  of  the  British  fleet,  later  augmented  by  an  Ameri- 
can war  fleet,  the  German  ships  have  been  corked  up  in  their 
home  ports  and  chased  from  the  seas. 

The  first  naval  battle  of  the  war  was  an  engagement  be- 
tween portions  of  the  British  squadron  in  the  Pacific  and  a 
superior  German  force.  The  engagement  occurred  off  the 
coast  of  Chili  in  November,  1915.  Two  British  vessels  were 
lost  and  a  third  badly  damaged.  However,  a  few  months  later, 
the  German  squadron,  in  command  of  Admiral  von  Spec,  was 
met  off  the  Falkland  Islands  by  a  second  British  squadron,  and 
in  the  engagement  four  of  the  German  vessels  were  simk  and 
a  fifth  damaged.     This  vessel  was  later  sunk. 

The  most  important  naval  engagement  was  the  battle  of 


470  THE  ACTIONS  OF  THE  WAE. 

Jutland  in  May,  1916,  when  Admiral  Beatty  met  a  German 
fleet  m  the  North  Sea.  The  German  boats  made  a  dash  from 
the  Kiel  canal  and  engaged  the  British  off  the  coast  of  Den- 
mark. Both  England  and  Germany  claimed  victory,  the  for- 
mer declaring  that  Germany  lost  eighteen  ships,  while  the 
German  Government  claimed  that  the  British  lost  fifteen  ves- 
sels. Berlin  admitted  a  loss  of  60,720  tons  and  3966  men, 
while  England  conceded  a  loss  of  more  than  114,000  tons  and 
5613  men.  But  the  English  fleet  which  engaged  the  German 
fighting  ships  was  but  a  small  portion  of  the  force  on  guard 
outside  of  Helgoland  and  the  Kiel  Canal,  and  the  effect  was 
to  keep  the  German  navy  from  venturing  forth  again. 

These  are  the  main  events  which  had  punctuated  the  action 
of  the  world's  fighting  machines  at  the  close  of  August,  1917, 
when  America  was  preparing  to  thwart  the  German  U-boats 
in  their  destruction  of  the  world's  shipping,  and  had  under 
actual  call  to  arms  more  than  1,000,000  men,  a  minor  part  of 
which  had  been  safely  landed  in  France. 

WORLD'S  AWFUL  MARITIME  LOSS. 
In  the  three  months  prior  to  August  the  German  under- 
seas  boats  had  sunk  464.  vessels,  or  an  average  of  426,000  tons 
of  shipping  a  month,  while  America,  working  with  her  fleets 
in  conjunction  with  the  British  Navy  to  foil  the  submarine 
in  its  endeavors,  was  also  building  more  than  12,000  cargo- 
carrying  craft  and  submarine  chasers  with  which  to  flood  the 
trafiic  lanes  of  the  sea. 

Likewise,  contracts  had  been  awarded  for  10,000  flying 
machines  with  which  to  drive  the  ''eyes  of  the  German  arm}^" 
as  the  air  machines  are  called,  from  the  heavens.  Finally,  as 
the  Allies  in  the  closing  days  of  August  were  driving  the  Ger- 
man hordes  back  under  avalanches  of  shells,  629,000  of  the 
youth  of  America,  called  to  fight  under  the  conscript  act,  were 
preparing  to  move  to  camps  in  a  dozen  different  sections  of  the 
coimtry  to  train  themselves  for  invading  foreign  countries  and 


THE  ACTIONS  OF  THE  WAR.  471 

facing  the  brutal  Teutons.  Likewise,  some  20,000  picked  men 
were  training  to  officer  these  civilian  forces,  and  half  a  million 
men  of  the  National  Guards  of  the  various  States,  formally 
mustered  into  the  service  of  the  country,  were  moving  by  orders 
of  the  Government  to  points  whence  they  would  find  their  way 
to  the  side  of  the  loyal  French  soldiers  and  the  sturdy  English, 
Scotch,  Canadian,  AustraUan  and  virile  Italian  fighters. 

The  records  of  three  years  show  that  the  American  ambu- 
lance drivers;  daring  thousands  of  our  countrymen  who  fought 
with  the  French  and  English  because  they  believed  the  war  was 
a  just  one,  and  without  compulsion;  scores  of  Red  Cross  nurses, 
and  aviators  who  hunted  the  Teutons  in  the  air,  all  Americans, 
have  had  their  names  written  high  in  the  roster  of  heroes. 
Americans  have  always  been  pioneers  and  history  makers,  and 
they  are  making  history  now. 

With  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  and  following  months 
of  intensive  training  under  the  direction  of  French  and  English 
soldiers,  the  American  expeditionary  forces  began  actual  par- 
ticipation in  the  great  world  war  as  a  unit.  Previously  their 
achievements  were  principally  in  connection  with  the  French 
aviation  corps  and  ambulance  sections. 

SINKING  OF  FIRST  AMERICAN  WAR  BOAT. 

The  first  untoward  incident  involving  America's  forces  on 
land  or  sea  was  the  sinking  of  the  transport  Antilles  on  October 
27,  1917,  by  a  German  submarine,  when  67  men — officers,  sea- 
men and  soldiers—were  lost.  The  vessel  was  returning  from  a 
French  port  after  having  landed  troops  and  supplies.  This 
was  the  first  loss  sustained  by  the  United  States,  and  the  event 
brought  home  the  seriousness  of  the  country's  participation  in 
the  war  as  no  previous  event  had  done. 

Ahnost  immediately  following  this  the  world  awoke  one 
morning  to  learn  that  silently  and  unheralded  the  'American 
soldiers  had  marched  from  their  quarters  in  a  French  village 
to  the  *'front"  and  in  a  slough  of  mud  had  entered  the  trenches. 


472  THE  ACTIONS  OF  THE  WAR. 

and  for  the  first  time  in  history  United  States  troops  launched 
shells  against  the  forces  of  Germany. 

The  initial  shot  was  fired  by  artillerists  at  the  break  of  day 
on  October  24,  and  America  was  formally  made  an  active  agent 
m  the  horrors  of  warfare  on  "J^b  Man's  Land."  Ten  days 
later  the  braye  Americans,  occupying  a  position  in  the  trenches 
tor  mstruction,  early  on  the  morning  of  Saturday,  November  3 
received  their  baptism  of  fire,  and  in  the  cause  of  Democracy  3 
soldiers  were  killed,  5  wounded  and  12  captured  by  the  Boche 
lorces. 

Cut  off  from  the  main  line  of  the  Allied  forces,  the  Ameri- 
cans were  stormed  under  the  protection  of  a  heavy  barrage  fire 
by  a  German  raiding  party  and  engaged  in  a  desperate  hand- 
to-hand  encounter.  The  20  Americans,  with  several  French 
mstructors,  according  to  oiBcial  report,  were  pitted  against 
210  picked  Germans.  A  rain  of  sheHs  from  Boche  guns  was 
laid  back  of  the  American  section  so  that  there  was  no  retreat. 
The  lieutenant  m  command  made  a  heroic  attempt  to  reach 
the  mam  fighting  line,  but  was  caught  in  the  barrage  fire  and 
rendered  unconscious  from  shell-shock. 

Previously  American  scouts  had  captured  a  German  pris- 
oner-a  mail  runner;  Lieutenant  de  Vere  H.  Harden,  of  the 
Signal  Corps  had  been  wounded  by  a  bursting  German  shell, 
and  a  German  gunner  was  reported  killed  by  an  American 
snarpshooter,  as  opening  incidents  of  the  skirmish. 
TT  -/f^  ^"^  ^^  ^^^  beginning  of  November,  1917,  with  the  whole 
United  States  giving  support  to  the  Government  in  subscribing 
upwards  of  five  billions  of  dollars  to  the  second  Liberty  Loan, 
and  all_ forces  working  to  conserve  food,  furnish  men,  ships, 
animunition,  clothing  and  supplies  to  her  own  troops  and  to  her 
Allies,  the  world  found  America  true  to  traditions,  battling  for 
the  right  and  giving  her  best  that  liberty  might  endure  and  the 
burden  of  Prussianism  be  lifted  from  humanity. 


CHAPTER  XXVin. 

AMEEICAN  FOKCES  BECOME  FACTOE. 

United  States  Soldiees  Ikspised  Allied  Teoops — Russla.n  Goveenment  Col- 
lapses— iTALLiN  Aemy  Fails — ^Allied  Was  Council  Foemed — Foch  Com- 
mands Allied  Aemies — Peeshinq  Offees  Amesican  Teocps — ^Undee  Fiee— 
U-BoAT  Bases  Eaided  by  Bettish. 

THE   influence   exerted  by  the  actual  presence  of  the 
American  troops  on  the  western  front  was  soon  appar- 
ent.    The  spirits  of  the  Enghsh,  French  a^nd  Canadian 
troops  were  raised  and  the  presence  of  the  Americans  was 
heralded  to  the  world  as  an  evidence  of  complete  imity  on  the 
part  of  the  Allies  that  meant  ultimate  death  to  Kaiserism. 

The  advent  of  Uncle  Sam's  fighting  men  on  the  firing 
line  had,  however,  one  serious  effect,  viewed  from  the  Allied 
standpoint.  Germany  realized  that  every  day  she  delayed  in 
making  attack  meant  the  strengthening  of  the  Allied  forces 
by  the  arrival  of  additional  United  States  troops,  and  it  was 
seen  by  the  Enghsh  and  French  leaders  that  the  Kaiser  would 
make  an  early  drive  to  annihilate,  if  possible,  the  stubbornly 
resisting,  though  somewhat  tired  and  weakened,  lines  opposing 
his  brutal  soldiery*  Not  for  months,  therefore,  was  it  per- 
mitted the  world  to  know  anything  about  the  numerical 
strength  of  the  American  troops  sent  into  France, 

Simultaneously  with  the  action  of  American  troops  in 
entering  the  resisting  line  of  Allied  troops  on  the  western 
front  the  Austro-German  troops  had  swept  into  the  Italian 
plains,  capturing  100,000  prisoners  and  upward  of  1,000  guns, 
taking  several  towns  and  compelling  the  retreat  of  the  Second 
and  Third  Italian  armies.  The  Italian  forces  were  opposed 
by  four  times  their  number,  but  it  was  also  said  that  the  imity 
of  the  Italian  forces  was  broken  by  the  spreading  of  German 
propaganda. 

473 


474  AMEEICAN  FOECES  BECOME  FACTOE. 

The  failure  of  some  of  the  troops  was  shown  in  an  official 
dispatch  from  Rome,  m  which  it  was  stated: 

"The  failm-e  to  resist  on  the  part  of  some  miits  forming 
our  second  army,  which  ui  cowardice  retu-ed  without  fighting 
or  surrendered  to  the  enemy,  aUowed  the  Austro-German 
forces  to  break  into  our  left  wing  on  the  Julian  front.  The 
valiant  efforts  of  other  troops  did  not  enable  them  to  prevent 
the  enemy  from  advancing  mto  the  sacred  soil  of  our  father- 
land. We  now  are  withdrawing  our  line  according  to  the  plan 
prepared.  All  stores  and  depots  in  the  evacuated  places  were 
destroyed." 

ITALIAN  HEADQUARTERS  CAPTURED. 
These  troops  were  compelled  to  fall  back  along  a  front 
ahnost  125  miles  long  and  Undine,  the  Italian  headquarters, 
was  captured.  Germany  had  found  the  weakest  spot  in  the 
Itahan  line  and  occupied  about  1,000  square  miles  of  territory 
before  General  Cadorna's  forces  were  able  to  establish  a  Ime 
of  strong  defense. 

The  retirement  of  the  Italian  troops  was  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  in  the  history  of  the  war,  and  Germany  made  her 
gains  at  terrible  cost. 

The  retirement  was  accompanied  by  shielding  operations 
of  the  rear  guard,  which  poured  a  deadly  fire  into  the  advanc- 
mg  columns  and  at  the  same  time  destroyed  powder  depots, 
arsenals  and  bridges  with  the  double  purpose  of  giving  time 
for  the  withdrawal  of  the  Italian  heavy  guns  and  of  preventing 
mihtary  stores  fallmg  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

The  Germans  encountered  stubborn  resistance  on  the 
Bainsizza  plateau,  and  heaps  of  enemy  dead  marked  the  hnes 
of  their  advance.  Around  Globo  ridge  a  bersaglieri  brigade, 
outnumbered  five  to  one,  held  back  the  enemy  while  the  main 
hne  had  an  opportunity  to  get  its  retreat  in  motion.  In  one 
ot  the  mountain  passes  a  small  village  commanding  the  pass 


AMERICAN  FORCES  BECOME  FACTOR.  415 

was  taken  and  retaken  eight  times  during  desperate  artillery, 
infantry  and  hand-to-hand  fighting. 

Before  the  Italians  were  able  to  establish  a  line  of  resist- 
ance they  were  compelled  to  fall  back  to  the  Piave,  and  at  some 
points  to  a  much  greater  distance.  Meantime  the  Allies  rushed 
assistance  to  the  retiring  forces,  and  while  the  collapse  of 
,Cadorna's  line  was  unfortunate,  it  had  the  effect  of  making  it 
more  obvious  that  there  should  be  more  unity  of  operation 
between  the  Allied  forces. 

Russia's  republic,  under  the  leadership  of  Premier  Keren- 
sky,  collapsing  at  the  same  moment,  intensified  the  serious- 
ness of  the  Allied  situation,  and  largely  at  the  suggestion  of 
America  an  Inter- Allied  War  Coimcil  was  formed. 
REVOLT  IN  PETROGARD. 

Premier  Kerensky  called  upon  the  United  States  to  help 
Russia  bear  the  burdens  of  conflict  until  the  forces  could  be 
reorganized  by  the  new  government.  Almost  immediately  there 
was  revolt  in  Petrograd,  and  the  radicals  under  the  leadership 
of  Leon  Trotsky,  president  of  the  Executive  Conmiittee  of  the 
Petrograd  Council  of  Soldiers'  and  Workmen's  Delegates, 
seized  the  telegraph  wh-es,  the  State  bank  and  Marie  Palace, 
where  the  preliminary  parliament  had  suspended  proceedings 
in  view  of  the  situation. 

The  Workmen's  and  Soldiers'  Delegates  assimaed  control 
of  the  City  of  Petrograd  and  Kerensky  was  compelled  to  flee. 
The  Winter  Palace  was  bombarded.  A  General  Council  of  the 
Soldiers'  and  Workmen's  Delegates  announced  the  taking  over 
of  government  authority: 

**We  plan  to  offer  an  immediate  armistice  of  three  months, 
durmg  which  elected  representatives  from  all  nations  and  not 
the  diplomats  are  to  settle  the  questions  of  peace,"  said  Nikolai 
Lenine,  the  Maximahst  leader,  in  a  speech  before  the  Work- 
men's and  Soldiers'  Congress  today. 

"We  offer  these  terms,"  M.  Lenine  added,  *T)ut  we  are 


470  AMEEICAN  FORCES  BECOME  FACTOR. 

willing  to  consider  any  proposals  for  peace,  no  matter  from 
which  side.  We  offer  a  just  peace,  but  will  not  accept  unjust 
terms." 

Meantime  General  Cadorna  was  relieved  of  command  of 
the  Italian  armies  and  General  Diaz  put  at  the  head  of  the 
Italian  forces,  while  General  Foch,  chief  of  staff  of  the  French 
War  Ministry,  and  General  Wilson,  sub-chief  of  the  British 
Staff,  were  made  members  of  an  Inter-Allied  Military  Com- 
mittee serving  with  General  Cadorna  to  straighten  out  the 
Italian  situation.    This  was  the  first  step  looking  to  the  unify- 
ing  of  the  Allied  forces  which  was  brought  about  shortly  there- 
after by  the  formation  of  the  Inter-Allied  War  Council  at 
Versailles.   It  was  chiefly  at  the  suggestion  of  President  Wilson 
that  the  War  Council  was  called,  the  President  issuing  a  stir- 
ring appeal  in  which  he  pointed  out  the  necessity  of  unity  of 
control,  if  the  resources  of  the  United  States  were  to  be  of  the 
greatest  value  to  the  Allied  interests. 

SUPREME  WAR  COUNCIL, 
The  Supreme  War  Council,  which  was  made  a  permanent 
body,  was  composed  of  the  Prime  Minister  and  a  member  of 
the  Government  of  each  of  the  Great  Powers  whose  armies 
were  fighting  at  the  front.  Each  Power  delegated  to  the  Su- 
preme Council  a  permanent  military  representative  whose  func- 
tion was  to  act  as  adviser  to  the  Council.  As  the  result  of  the 
deliberations  of  the  War  Council,  and  following  the  suggestion 
of  General  Pershing,  General  Foch  was  made  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  Allied  Armies.  General  Foch  was  Commander 
of  the  French  troops  at  Verdmi  and  a  recognized  authority  on 
military  strategy. 

While  the  problem  of  solving  the  military  phases  of  the 
situation  was  being  considered  by  the  AUied  War  Council  the 
Eussian  forces  under  Kerensky  and  those  under  Trotzky, 
known  as  the  Bolsheviki,  clashed  again  and  again  at  Petrogi'ad, 
Moscow  and  other  points,  and  the  hope  of  the  Allies  as  to  any 


AMERICAN  FORCES  BECOME  FACTOR.  477 

help  from  B.ussia  sanK.  Germany  entered  into  a  peace  compact 
with  Ukrainia,  and  the  hand  of  the  Kaiser  was  seen  in  the 
Russian  situation  when  officers  of  the  German  Army  were 
reported  in  Petrograd  in  conference  with  the  representatives 
of  the  various  Russian  factions.  Russia  suggested  a  separate 
armistice,  or  a  separate  peace,  against  which  both  the  U.  S.  and 
France  protested. 

The  failure  of  the  Russian  Government  to  assume  any 
degree  of  stability  made  it  possible  for  the  Germans  to  with- 
draw many  troops  and  transfer  them  to  the  Italian  and  West- 
em  Fronts. 

One  result  of  the  Allied  War  Council  deliberations  was  to 
show  the  necessity  of  rapid  action  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States  and  get  troops  into  France  so  that  they  might  take  over 
a  defiilite  sector.  While  it  was  estimated  that  several  hundred 
thousand  Americans  were  in  France,  the  necessity  for  a  larger 
force  was  made  apparent  by  the  statement  that  90  reserves  are 
required  for  every  400  fighters  on  the  line. 

DROPPED  THEIR  TOOLS  FOR  RIFLES. 

The  first  bitter  attack  in  which  American  troops  figured 
was  when  a  company  of  United  States  engineers,  caught  be- 
tween crossfires,  dropped  their  tools  for  rifles  and  joined  the 
English  troops  in  helping  to  repulse  the  Germans  near 
Cambrai. 

A  notable  ievent  in  the  progress  of  the  war  was  the  declara- 
tion of  war  upon  Austria  by  the  U.  S.  on  Dec.  8,  1917,  Con- 
gress adopting  a  resolution  of  war  with  but  one  dissenting  vote. 

Events  which  brought  the  seriousness  of  the  war  home 
to  America  began  at  this  point  to  occur  rapidly.  First  the  Tor- 
pedo Boat  Destroyer  Jacob  Jones  was  sunk  in  the  war  zone 
when  nearly  30  men  were  reported  lost.  This  was  followed 
shortly  by  a  report  to  the  War  Department  that  17  Amerieans 
caught  in  the  crossfire  by  the  Germans  at  Cambrai  were  missing 
or  killed.    The  report  of  the  sinking  of  the  Alcedo,  a  patrol 


478  AMERICAN  FORCES  BECOME  FACTOR. 

boat,  with  the  loss  of  several  ofBcers,  was  also  received,  as  was 
that  of  the  smking  of  the  U.  S.  Destroyer  *'Chauncey"  rammed 
in  a  collision,  when  two  officers  and  eighteen  men  were  lost. 

One  of  the  high  spots  of  the  war  and  one  of  the  notable 
events  in  the  hi^ory  of  the  world,  was  the  surrender  of  the  City 
of  Jerusalem  to  the  British  on  Saturday,  December  8,  1917. 
Gen.  Allenby  entered  the  famed  city  and  established  his  troops 
on  the  ancient  Jerico  Road. 

The  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  British  forces  marked  the 
end,  with  two  brief  interludes,  of  more  than  1200  years'  posses- 
sion of  the  seat  of  the  Christian  religion  by  the  Mohanmiedans. 
Tor  673  years  the  Holy  City  had  been  in  disputed  ownership  of 
the  Turks,  the  last  Christian  ruler  of  Jerusalem  being  the  Ger- 
man Emperor,  Frederick,  whose  short-lived  domination  lasted 
from  1229  to  1244. 

THE  FALL  OF  JERUSALEM. 
^  Apart  from  its  connection  with  the  campaign  being  waged 
against  Turkey  by  the  British  in  Mesopotamia,  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  marked  the  definite  collapse  of  the  long-protracted 
efforts  of  the  Turks  to  capture  the  Suez  Canal  and  invade 
Egypt.     Almost  the  first  move  made  by  Turkey  after  her 
entrance  into  the  war  was  a  campaign  against  Egypt  across  the 
great  desert  of  the  Sinai  Peninsula.    In  November,  1914,  a 
Turkish  army,  variously  estimated  at  from  75,000  to  250,000 
men,  marched  on  the  Suez  Canal  and  succeeded  in  reaching 
within  striking  distance  of  the  great  artificial  waterway  at  sev- 
eral points.    For  several  months  bitter  fighting  took  place,  the 
canal  being  defended  by  an  Anglo-Egyptian  army  aided  by 
Australians  and  Ke^vi  Zealanders  and  French  and  British 
forces. 

^  For  the  greater  part  of  1915  conflicting  reports  of  the  sit- 
uation were  received  from  the  beUigerents,  but  in  December 
of  that  year  definite  information  showed  that  the  Turks  had 
been  driven  back  as  far  as  El  Arish,  about  eighty-five  miles  east 


AMERICAN  FORCES  BECOME  FACTOR.  479 

of  the  canal.  A  lull  occurred  then  which  lasted  for  six  months, 
and  in  June,  1916,  the  Turks  again  advanced  as  far  at  Katieh, 
about  fifteen  miles  east  of  the  canal.  Here  they  were  decisively 
defeated,  losing  more  than  3000  prisoners  and  a  great  quantity 
of  equipment. 

Another  period  followed  in  which  the  situation  was  greatly 
confused  through  the  vagueness  and  contradictory  character  of 
the  official  statements,  but  in  December,  1916,  the  British 
stormed  El  Arish  and  a  few  days  later  severely  defeated  the 
Turks  at  Maghdabah,  about  sixty  miles  to  the  south  on  the 
same  front.  Two  weeks  later  the  invaders  had  been  driven  out 
of  Egypt  and  the  British  forces  crossed  the  border  into  Pales- 
tine.   On  March  7  they  captured  El  Khulil,  southeast  of  Gaza. 

By  November  22  the  British  had  pushed  within  five  miles 
of  Jerusalem,  on  the  northwest,  and  on  December  7  General 
Allenby  announced  that  he  had  taken  Hebron.  Jerusalem  thus 
was  virtually  cut  off  on  all  sides  but  the  east. 

HISTORICAL  INTEREST  TO  CHRISTIANS. 

In  sentimental  and  romantic  aspect  the  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem far  exceeds  even  the  fall  of  fable-crowned  Bagdad.  The 
modern  City  of  Jerusalem  contains  about  60,000  inhabitants, 
and  is  the  home  of  pestilence,  filth  and  fevers,  but  in  historic 
interest  it  natually  surpasses,  to  the  Christian  world,  all  other 
places  in  the  world.  Since  the  days  when  David  wrested  it 
from  the  hands  of  the  Jebusites  to  make  it  the  capital  of  the 
Jewish  race  Jerusalem  has  been  the  prize  and  prey  of  half  the 
races  of  the  world.  It  has  passed  successively  into  the  hands 
of  the  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Greeks,  Romans,  Persians, 
Arabs,  Turks,  the  Crusaders,  finally  to  fall  before  the  descend- 
ants of  that  Richard  the  Lion-hearted  who  strove  in  vain  for 
its  possession  more  than  700  years  ago. 

Early  in  January,  1918,  evidence  was  forthcoming  that 
Germany  was  preparing  to  make  a  final  drive  on  the  West- 
ern Front  to  break  through  and  capture  some  English  and 


^80  AMERICAN  FORCES  BECOME  FACTOR. 

FrencK  channel  ports  before  America  could  be  of  any  great 
assistance  to  the  Allied  forces.  As  a  result  Great  Britain  deter- 
mined to  call  500,000  more  men  to  hold  the  Huns,  and  Premier 
Lloyd  George  issued  a  stirring  appeal  to  Labor  affected  hv 
the  Man-Power  Bill,  which  provided  for  the  increase  taken 
largely  from  the  labor  forces. 

The  German  intent  to  launch  an  offensive  was  indicated 
by  the  withdrawal  of  German  lines  north  of  Italy  when  im- 
portant defensive  positions  were  abandoned,  and  dummy  sol- 
diers were  left  in  trench  to  conceal  movement  to  the  rear 
Warnings  of  a  great  submarine  offensive  on  American  boat- 
hnes  to  France,  to  be  joined  with  a  big  drive  on  land,  were  re- 
ceived by  Secretary  of  War  Baker,  and  on  February  2  the 
American  troops  occupying  a  sector  of  the  Lorraine  front  in 
France  faced  the  first  big  bombardment  in  what  was  prelim- 
mary  to  the  most  bitter  drive  Germany  had  attempted  in  four 
years  of  warfare. 

SINKING  OF  THE  TUSCANIA.  ' 
True  to  their  promise  the  German  submarines  started 
their  portion  of  the  offensive  and  sunk  the  U.  S.  troopship 
"Tuscania"  a  few  days  later  off  the  coast  of  Ireland  The 
liner  carried  2,179  U.  S.  troops  of  various  divisions  besides  a 
crew  of  200.  The  total  number  of  persons  lost  was  113.  The 
troops  included  engineers,  members  of  the  aero-squadron,  and 
regulars. 

The  Tuscania  was  the  first  troopship  to  be  sunt  en  route 
to  France,  though  the  Antilles  was  sunk  in  October,  1917. 
This  boat,  however,  it  must  be  noted,  was  returning  from 
France.  At  this  time  70  lives  were  lost.  The  comparatively 
small  loss  of  life  on  the  "Tuscania"  was  accepted  as  evidence 
of  the  efficient  training  and  bravery  of  American  troops  under 
all  conditions. 

The  Tuscania  was  torpedoed  when  entering  what  until 
that  time  were,  considered  comparatively  safe  waters.     The 


AMEEICAN  FORCES  BECOME  FACTOR.  481 

ships  were  within  sight  of  land,  which  was  just  distinguish- 
able in  the  dusk  of  evening  when  the  torpedo  hit  the  Tuscania 
amidships.    This  was  at  about  7  o'clock. 

When  the  crash  came  the  khaki-clad  young  Heroes  of  the 
American  army  lined  up  as  though  on  parade,  and  sang  the 
"Star  Spangled  Banner"  at  the  top  of  their  voices  as  the 
Tuscania  sank  by  inches  under  them.  Across  from  them 
their  British  cousins  of  the  crew  came  back  with  the  echo- 
ing "God  Save  the  King,"  which  too  cool-headed  exponents  of 
what  occurred  in  a  crisis  of  a  sea  disaster  say  accounts  for 
the  fact  the  Germans  took  only  a  toll  of  113  lives  out  of  the 
2,897  souls  on  board  the  Cunarder  when  she  met  her  fate. 

AMERICAN  COURAGE  PRAISED. 

If  the  singing  man  is  a  fighting  man,  he  also  is  hopeful, 
and  in  the  combination  of  fight  and  hope  there  came  the  baf- 
fling of  the  German  attempt  to  reduce  the  American  war  forces 
by  almost  a  full  regiment.  Taking  stock  after  the  disaster, 
the  officers  of  both  the  army  and  navy  praised  the  courage  of 
the  Americans  as  the  chief  reason  for  the  saving  of  more  than 
90  per  cent  of  the  men  on  board. 

No  submarine  was  seen  until  the  torpedo  struck  the  Tus- 
cania fairly  amidships.  A  moment  later  another  torpedo 
passed  astern  of  the  vessel.  There  was  a  terrific  explosion,  and 
it  is  believed  most  of  the  casualties  were  caused  by  this  and  by 
subsequent  difficulties  in  lowering  the  boats. 

The  vessel  immediately  took  a  heavy  list  and  the  men 
were  called  to  their  lifeboat  stations,  but  the  list  prevented  the 
boats  from  being  properly  lowered,  some  of  the  upper-deck 
boats  falling  to  the  lower  deck.  Many  of  the  men  jumped 
into  the  water,  and  the  difficulty  in  lowering  the  boats  was  re- 
sponsible for  many  casualties. 

The  survivors  of  the  Tuscania  landed  at  points  in  Ireland 
were  received  with  great  honor  in  the  various  communities,  and 


482  AMERICAN  FORCES  BECOME  FACTOR. 

great  tribute  was  paid  to  the  surviving  soldiers  by  the  Mayor 
of  Dublin. 

The  American  troops  on  the  Tuscania  were  part  of  the 
forces  being  hurried  to  France  to  hold  the  Germans  in  check, 
and  at  the  time  American  troops  were  holding  a  sector  with 
the  French  in  Lorraine,  northwest  of  Toul,  while  American 
artillery  were  supporting  the  French  in  Champagne.     The 
date  set  for  the  big  German  drive  was  announced  as  January 
28,  and  the  fact  that  Germany  made  an  open  proclamation  of 
the  fact  that  they  proposed  to  wage  offensive  warfare  was 
somewhat  puzzling  to  the  minds  of  those  studying  the  situa- 
tion.   Making  her  position  more  impregnable,  Germany  halted 
her  armies  in  Russia  upon  the  acceptance  of  peace  terms  by 
the  Russian  delegation  at  Brest-Litovsk,  which  were  con- 
cluded on  March  1, 1918,  and  daily  the  activities  of  the  German 
forces  on  the  Western  Front  grew  in  intensity.     On  March 
6,  in  anticipation  of  the  drive,  it  was  for  the  first  time  publicly 
stated  that  81,000  troops  of  American  soldiers  were  holding 
an  eight  mile  line  on  the  Lorraine  front,  with  three  full  divi- 
sions in  the  trenches.     The  gathering  together  of  this  force 
and  other  American  troops  in  France  drew  Secretary  of  War 
Baker  to  the  scene  of  activities.    He  was  the  first  American 
Cabinet   officer   to   cross  the  ocean   after  America   entered 
the  war. 

SEIZURE  OF  ALL  DUTCH  VESSELS. 
Holland  having  proved  herself  unwilling  to  come  to  a 
satisfactory  agreement  at  this  time  on  the  British- American 
demand  regarding  the  use  of  ships.  President  Wilson  ordered 
the  seizure  of  all  Dutch  vessels  within  the  territorial  juris- 
diction of  the  United  States;  the  Allies  ordered  a  similar  seiz- 
ure abroad.  The  President's  proclamation  authorized  the  navy 
to  take  over  the  vessels  to  be  equipped  and  operated  by  the 
Navy  Department  and  the  Shipping  Board.  A  total  of  77 
ships  were  added  to  the  American  Merchant  Marine. 


AMERICAN  FOECES  BECOME  FACTOR.  433 

Holland's  failure  to  act  was  on  the  propositions  that  the 
United  States  and  the  Allies  should  facilitate  the  importation 
into  Holland  of  foodstuffs,  and  other  commodities  required  to 
maintain  her  economic  life,  and  that  Holland  should  restore 
her  Merchant  Marine  to  a  normal  condition  of  activity. 

On  March  21  the  greatest  German  offensive  of  the  war 
actually  began  on  a  front  50  miles  long,  running  west  and 
southwest  of  Cambrai.  The  preliminary  German  bombard- 
ment covered  a  front  from  the  River  Serre  below  St.  Quentin, 
and  the  River  Scarpe  east  of  Arras. 

FIERCEST  BATTLE  IN  WORLD'S  HISTORY. 
Field  Marshal  Haig's  report  from  British  headquarters 
in  France  described  the  German  offensive  as  comprising  an 
intense  bombardment  by  the  artillery  and  a  powerful  infantry 
attack  on  a  front  of  more  than  fifty  miles.  Some  of  the  British 
positions  were  penetrated,  but  the  German  losses  were  excep- 
tionally heavy. 

It  was  reported  at  the  end  of  the  first  day  that  the  fiercest 
battle  of  the  world's  history  was  in  progress,  and  that  80,000 
Germans  were  lost  in  battle;  while  Berlin  reported  the  capture 
of  16,000  Allied  prisoners  and  200  guns.        ^ 

The  Associated  Press  correspondent  reported  that  at  least 
forty  divisions  of  German  soldiers  were  identified  as  actively 
participating  in  the  attack.  No  such  concentration  of  artillery- 
had  been  seen  since  the  war  began.  The  enemy  had  1,000 
guns  in  one  small  sector— one  for  every  twelve  yards.  The 
Germans  in  many  sections  attacked  in  three  waves  of  infantry, 
foUowed  up  by  shock  troops.  As  a  result  they  suffered  very 
heavy  casualties. 

The  German  massed  artillery  was  badly  hammered  by  the 
British  gims. 

In  the  first  stage  of  their  offensive  the  Germans  failed 
badly  in  the  execution  of  their  program,  as  was  attested  by 


484  AMEKICAN  FORCES  BECOME  FACTOR. 

captured  documents  showing  what  they  planned  to  do  in  the 
early  hours  of  their  offensive. 

By  March  24  the  attacks  of  the  Germans  had  been  re- 
doubled, and  it  was  estimated  that  more  than  1,000,000  Huns 
had  been  thrown  into  the  struggle  against  the  British  forces 
on  which  the  attack  was  concentrated. 

The  most  notable  feature  of  the  attack  from  the  spectacu- 
lar viewpoint  was  the  bombardment  of  Paris  by  monster  Ger- 
man cannon,  located  in  the  forest  of  St.  Gobain,  west  of  Laon, 
and  approximately  76  miles  away  from  Paris. 

BIG  GUN  ONE  HUNDRED  FEET  LONG. 

Though  no  official  description  of  the  big  gun  was  ever 
given,  it  was  stated  by  military  authorities  that  it  was  approxi- 
mately 100  feet  in  length,  and  that  several  were  in  use,  and 
more  being  built  by  the  Germans.  At  first  the  statement  that 
a  gun  could  shoot  such  a  distance  was  doubted,  but  when  75 
persons  were  killed  in  Paris  and  one  of  the  shells  hit  a  church 
doubt  no  longer  existed.  It  also  developed  that  the  gun  was 
originally  an  American  invention,  and  that  similar  weapons 
Were  being  built  by  the  United  States. 

The  use  of  the  big  gun  was  in  the  nature  of  a  "side-issue" 
to  bring  terror  to  the  French,  and  in  line  with  the  policy  of 
frightfulness  instituted  by  the  German  militarists.  Its  use 
was  continued  daily.  Meantime  the  German  hordes  swept  on 
marching  in  close  formation  into  the  very  mouths  of  the  rapid- 
fire  guns  and  against  the  strongly  fixed  British  lines. 

For  ten  days  the  hostilities  continued,  without  cessation, 
with  fighting  along  a  whole  front  such  as  had  never  been  known 
before. 

The  Germans  continued  to  hurl  great  forces  of  infantry 
into  the  conflict,  depending  largely  on  weight  of  numbers  to 
overcome  the  increasing  opposition  offered  by  the  heroically 
resisting  British. 

The  battle  on  the  historic  groimd  about  Longueval  was 


AMERICAN  FORCES  BECOME  FACTOR.  485 

perhaps  the  most  spectacular  of  any  along  the  front.  It  :was 
a  battle  of  machine  gminers  and  infantry.  The  Germans  were 
pm-suing  their  tactics  of  working  forward  in  massed  formation, 
and  the  British  rapid-firers'  squads  and  riflemen  reaped  a  horrid 
harvest  from  their  positions  on  the  high  ground.  JsTotwith- 
standing  their  terrible  losses,  the  Germans  kept  coming  on,  fill- 
ing in  the  places  of  those  who  had  fallen  and  pressing  their  at- 
tack. The  British  artillery  in  the  meantime  poured  in  a  perfect 
rain  of  shells  on  the  enemy,  carrying  havoc  into  their  ranks. 
In  this  section  the  Germans  operated  without  the  full  support 
of  their  guns,  because  of  their  rapid  advance. 
ENEMY  LOSES  HEAVILY. 

A  fierce  engagement  was  also  waged  about  Le  Verguier, 
which  the  Germans  captured,  but  not  until  the  British  infan- 
try holding  the  place  had  fought  to  the  last  man  and  inflicted 
extremely  heavy  losses  on  the  enemy.  The  British  again  fell 
back,  this  time  to  a  line  through  Hervilly,  just  east  of  Roisel 
and  Vermand. 

The  work  of  the  British  airmen  during  the  battle  was  one 
of  the  brightest  pages.  Bitter  battles  in  the  air  were  fought 
by  scores  of  aviators  and  the  service  proved  fully  its  ability  to 
smother  the  German  airmen  at  a  crucial  time. 

Within  a  few  days  it  was  stated  that  at  least  130  German 
airplanes  were  brought  down.  This  compilation  of  losses  hag 
reference  to  only  one  section  of  the  battle  front,  comprising 
perhaps  two-thirds  of  the  line  affected. 

An  official  statement  regarding  British  aerial  operations 
said  their  airplanes  were  employed  in  bombing  the  enemy's 
troops  and  transport  massed  in  the  areas  behind  the  battle- 
front,  and  in  attacking  them  with  machine-gun  fire  from  low 
heights.  Twenty-two  tons  of  bombs  were  dropped  in  this 
work,  and  more  than  100,000  rounds  were  fired  from  the  ma- 
chine guns. 

By  March  28  the  German  losses  were  estimated  at  400,000. 


486  AMERICAN  FORCES  BECOME  FACTOR. 

The  forces  of  the  Germans  were  ahnost  overwhehning,  the 
Kaiser  sacrificing  the  man-power  of  his  nation  in  a  last  desper- 
ate attack. 

In  consequence  no  greater  stories  of  heroism  have  ever 
been  told  than  are  related  of  the  English,  French  and  American 
troops.  The  Germans  were  set  for  a  drive  against  the  English 
and  French  channel  points  with  Amiens  as  an  objective,  with 
the  idea  of  breaking  through  the  British  Hues  where  they  join 
the  French. 

AMERICAN  FORCES  OFFERED  TO  FRANCE. 

The  earnestness  of  the  Americans  in  the  situation  was 
proclaimed  to  the  world  by  the  EngUsh  and  French,  and  Gen- 
eral  Pershing  placed  his  name  and  that  of  his  country  and  men 
high  on  the  wall  of  fame  by  unselfishly  offering  to  France  at 
the  most  critical  period  the  use  of  his  entire  force,  to  be  disposed 
of  and  assigned  wherever  General  Foch  and  his  staff  decided  to 
use  them.  Within  a.  few  days  thereafter  the  American  troops 
which  had  been  in  training  were  marched  in  to  relieve  the 
stressed  English  and  French. 

Everywhere  the  raging  battle  was  marked  by  spectacular 
features  not  the  least  of  which  were  provided  by  a  corps  of 
thirty  tanks,  which  waded  into  the  German  hordes  near  Ephey 
and  other  points,  recovering  positions  which  had  been  lost  by 
the  British. 

Canadian  armored  motorcars  also  played  an  important 
part  in  checking  the  Huns,  the  cars  armed  with  rapid-fire  guns 
being  rushed  up  to  support  weakening  troops. 

The  progress  of  the  Germans  was  halted  on  April  3,  and 
in  the  following  days  the  British  regained  several  lost  positions 
and  the  French  made  gains.  But  after  a  pause,  during  which 
several  hundred  thousand  new  troops  were  brought  in,  the 
Huns  renewed  the  oflFensive,  delivering  an  attack  against  the 
[French  near  Montdidier  on  a  front  about  15  miles  long.    An 


AMERICAN  rOECES  BECOME  FACTOR.  467 

attack  along  a  front  of  similar  length  was  made  against  the 
British  on  the  Somme. 

The  first  battalion  of  American  troops  answering  to  the 
call  of  the  French  for  support  reached  the  British  front-line  in 
France,  on  April  10,  on  the  very  anniversary  of  the  entrance 
of  the  United  States  into  the  war,  and  within  a  few  days  the 
Americans  began  to  bear  the  brimt  of  battle,  holding  the  Ger- 
mans like  veterans. 

The  first  big  attack  of  the  Germans  launched  directly 
against  an  American  line  occurred  on  April  30,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Villers-Bretonneaux,  below  the  Somme,  where  the  Huns 
were  repulsed  with  heavy  losses.  The  German  preliminary 
bombardment  lasted  two  hours  and  then  the  infantry  rushed 
forward,  only  to  be  driven  back,  leaving  large  numbers  of  dead 
on  the  ground  in  front  of  the  American  lines. 
AMERICANS   BOMBARDED. 

The  German  bombardment  opened  at  5  o'clock  in  the  af- 
ternoon and  was  directed  especially  against  the  Americans,  who 
were  supported  on  the  north  and  south  by  the  French.  The 
fire  was  intense  and  at  the  end  of  two  hours  the  German  com- 
mander sent  forward  three  battalions  of  infantry.  There  was 
hand-to-hand  fighting  all  along  the  line,  as  a  result  of  which 
the  enemy  was  thrust  back,  his  dead  and  wounded  lying  on  the 
ground  in  all  directions.  Five  prisoners  remained  in  Ameri- 
can hands. 

"Tell  them  back  home  that  we  are  just  beginning,"  said 
an  American  lad  who  was  in  the  thick  of  the  fight  and  severely 
wounded  with  shrapnel.  *Tt  was  fine  to  see  our  men  go  at  the 
Huns.  All  of  us,  who  thought  baseball  was  the  great  American 
game,  have  changed  our  minds.  There  is  only  one  game  to  keep 
the  American  flag  flying— that  is,  kill  the  Huns.  I  got  sev- 
eral before  they  got  me." 

^  Details  of  the  engagement  show  the  Americans  stuck  to 
their  guns  while  the  Germans  were  placing  liquid  fire,  gas  and 


488  AMERICAN  FORCES  BECOME  FACTOR. 

almost  every  other  conceivable  device  of  frightf ulness  on  them. 
One  of  them,  who  lay  womided  in  an  American  hospital,  had 
kept  his  machine  gun  going  after  the  chief  gmmers  had  been 
killed  two  feet  away  and  he  himself  had  been  womided,  thus 
protecting  a  turn  in  the  road  known  as  Dead  Man's  curve,  over 
which  some  of  the  American  couriers  passed  in  the  face  of  a  con- 
centrated enemy  fire. 

As  indicating  the  violence  of  the  offensive,  French  ambu- 
lance men  who  went  through  the  famous  battle  of  Verdun 
declared  today  that,  comparatively  speaking,  the  German  artil- 
lery fire  against  the  Americans  was  heavier  than  in  any  single 
engagement  on  the  Verdun  front  at  any  time. 

The  German  barrage  began  just  before  sunrise.  In  an 
attempt  to  put  the  American  batteries  out  of  action  the  Ger- 
mans used  an  unusually  large  number  of  gas  shells,  but  the 
American  artillery  replied  vigorously,  hurling  hundreds  of 
shells  across  the  Teuton  lines.  Though  successful  in  resisting 
the  German  attack,  the  Americans  lost  183  men  captured  by 
the  Huns,  according  to  the  British  repori 

Nothing  in  the  history  of  naval  warfare  is  more  pictur- 
esque than  the  story  of  the  raid  made  by  English  ships  on  the 
German  submarine  bases  at  Ostend  and  Zeebrugge,  on  the 
Belgian  coast,  on  April  22.  Obsolete  cruisers  filled  with  con- 
crete were  run  aground  and  blown  up  in  the  harbors.  An  old 
submarine  filled  with  explosives  was  used  to  blow  up  the  piling 
beside  the  Mole  at  Zeebrugge. 

One  German  destroyer  was  torpedoed,  and  the  British 
lost  a  destroyer,  two  coastal  motorboats  and  two  launches. 

A  fortnight  later  the  old  cruiser  Vindictive  was  taken  into 
the  submarine  base  at  Ostend  and  sent  to  the  bottom,  blocking 
the  channel,  making  the  attack  thoroughly  effective. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 
AMERICANS  TURN  WAR'S  TIDE 

Brilliant  American  Fighting  Stops  Hun  Advance— French  and  British  Inspired 

Famous    Marines    Lead    in    Picturesque    Attack — Halt    Germans    at 

Chateau-Thierry— Used  Open  Style  Fighting— Thousands  op  Germans 
Slain— United  States  Troops  in  Siberia— New  Conscription  Bill  Passed— 
Allied  Successes  on  All  Fronts. 

All;  history  contains  no  greater  story  of  bravery  and 
heroism  than  that  which  echoed  around  the  world  con- 
cerning the  exploits  of  the  American  soldiers  in  France 
as  the  war  entered  its  fifth  year^ 

Casting  aside  all  precedent,  ignoring  tHe;  practices  whicH 
had  been  developed  by  the  English,  French  and  German  com- 
mands during  four  years  of  stubborn  fighting,  a  little  force  of 
Americans — ^barely  a  handful,  led  by  the  picturesque  Marines 
—brought  the  Huns  to  a  standstill  in  iheix  drive  upon  Paris 
and  turned  the  tide  of  war. 

Once  again  history  repeated  itself,  for  the  Germans  were 
turned  back  at  the  beautiful  river  Marne,  where  the  brave 
Americans  and  heroic  French  smashed  their  lines.  The  spec- 
tacular event  in  which  the  Americans  participated  was  a  mere 
incident  of  the  great  conflict  raging  across  France,  but  the 
story  must  ever  be  one  of  the  outstanding  features  of  the  war 
because  of  the  effect  it  produced  upon  the  whole  situation. 

In  the  struggle  against  the  Huns  the  Belgian  army  had 
been  reduced  to  its  lowest  ebb;  the  manpower  of  France  and 
England  had  been  sapped  by  constant  call  for  reserves,  and 
the  Allied  forces,  while  resisting  and  fighting  heroically,  were 
without  reserves  to  draw  upon  to  effect  a  decisive?  blow  when 
the  opportunity  presented. 

The  German  hordes  Gad  swept  forward  witK  hammer- 
like  blows  toward  Paris  in  what  was  a  continuation  of  the  giant 
offensive   started   in   March.      The   second   movement   was 

489 


490  AMERICANS  TURN  WAR^S  TIDE 

launched  under  the  personal  command  of  the  German  Crown 
Prince  on  May  27,  and  was  directed  against  four  divisions  of 
the  British  troops  and  the  Sixth  French  Army.  Concentra- 
tion was  on  a  front  stretching  from  Soissons  to  Eheims,  a  dis^ 
tance  of  about  30  miles. 

^  .The  Huns  were  driving  on  the  entire  front,  but  the  Srown 
Prince  with  crack  troops  was  to  have  the  honor  for  which  he 
had  long  been  striving^that  of  crossing  the  famous  Marne 
and  taking  Paris.  His  troops  had  reached  the  river  between 
Dormans  and  Chateau-Thierry  at  the  very  spot  where  the 
Third  German  Army  had  swept  across  the  stream  on  August 
25,  1914.    Paris  was  less  than  50  miles  away. 

Here  and  there  at  other  points  the  Germans  Had  been'Iield 
by  the  French  and  English,  but  as  part  of  the  strategy  of  the 
French  command  the  enemy  had  been  permitted  to  advance  at 
this  point  through  lines  which  would  cost  him  a  terrible  toll  of 
lives.  The  French  meantime  were  concentrating  on  the 
enemy's  flank  with  the  hope  of  breaking  through  and  pocketing 
part  of  the  Crown  Prince's  advancing  forces. 

.Whatever  the  intent^  the  Germans  were  resisting  the  ef- 
forts ta  stop  them.  The  question  was,  where  would  the  ad^ 
TOnce  end?    The  answer  was  furnished  by  America.         ~- 

The  enemy  had  attempted  to  broaden  his  Marne  salient 
and  had  stretched  as  far  south  as  Chateau-Thierry.  It  is  sup- 
posed his  purpose  was  to  compel  General  Foch  to  meet  shock 
with  shock  by  throwing  in  his  reserve  forces,  since  the  German 
advance  had  then  almost  reached  shelling  distance  of  Paris. 

But  the  German  command  had  not  taken  the  Americans 
into  their  calculations,  for  here  the  Prussians  met  Uncle  Sam's 
fighting  men  and  their  French  supports  and  were?  smashed  and 
thrown  back. 

Fighting  in  their  own  way,  in  the  open,  against  Superior 
forces,  the  Marines  and  troops  of  the  National  American  Army 
ifought  their  way  to  victory,  routing  the  enemy  and  wresting 


AMERICANS  TURN  WAR'S  TIDE  491 

from  them  positions   absolutely  necessary   to   their   further 

advance. 

Immense  forces  of  Germans  had  been  thrown  into  the 
fray  when  the  American  division,  to  which  the  Marines  were 
attached,  was  ordered  into  the  breach.  The  bulk  of  the  forces, 
called  to  help  halt  the  Huns,  were  hours  away  from  the 
fighting  front  and  were  being  brought  up  for  the  purpose  of 
holding  a  secondary  position  where  they  would  take  up  the 
fighting  when  the  French  fell  back. 

They  had  captured  Cantigny  after  elaborate  preparations 
under  the  direction  of  the  French,  but  here  there  were  no 
preparations.  The  Ajnerican  commanders  wanted  to  attack 
the  advancing  enemy.  The  Allied  leaders  doubted  the  ability 
of  the  Americans  to  stop  the  Boche  in  open  comba?. 

The  American  commanders  pleaded  to  make  war  in  their 
own  way.  Doubting,  yet  hopeful,  the  Allied  commanders  gave 
consent.  The  Americans  were  moved  into  position.  There 
was  no  time  for  rest  and  they  came  forward  under  forced  draft, 
so  to  speak.  Infantry,  machine  gun  companies  and  artillery 
swung  into  position  and  faced  the  enemy  which  aimed  a  blow 
at  the  line  where  it  was  supported  by  the  French  on  the  left. 

The  Boche  hordes  swarmed  across  fields.  The  American 
gunners  raked  them  with  hell's  fire.  The  reputation  of  the 
Americans  as  sharpshooters  and  marksmen  was  sustained. 
Under  the  most  slressfxJ.  circumstances  and  while  the  French 
observers  stood  amazed,  the  Americans  took  careful  aim  and 
shot  as  though  at  rifle  practice.  Every  possible  shot  svas  made 
to  tell. 

The;  Germans  wavered,  then  halted  under  tfie  iwithering 
fire  of  machine  guns  and  rifle.  On  again  they  came,  only  to 
again  be  repulsed.  The  ground  was  strewn  with  their  dead  and 
wounded.  Then  they  began  to  break  and  to  crawl  back  to 
safer  positions. 

The  enemy  had  been  stopped  but  not  driven.     They  had 


492  AMERICANS  TURN  WAR'S  TIDE 

fallen  back  to  strong  positions,  the  names  of  which  must  go 
down  m  history  as  scenes  of  terrific  fighting-Bouresches  and 

^•\  t  ^  ^^^"~*^^  ^^**^^  ^  ^°°'ie<i'  ^•o<^ky  parcel  of  land  on 
which  German  machine  guns  were  hidden— hundreds  of  them 
--while  more  than  a  thousand  of  the  enemy's  best  men  were 
concealed  in  the  thicket  and  underbrush  and  in  the  rocky 
fissures. 

The  iimericans  drove  into  the  wood  and  charged  the 
stronghold.  Sacrifice!  Yes,  hundreds  of  brave  young  Ameri- 
cans died  fighting,  but  not  in  vain.  American  artiUery  swept 
the  woods;  little  companies  of  men  charged  the  enemy  machine- 
gun  nests,  silencing  the  guns  and  killing  the  operators  or  tak- 
ing them  prisoners.  There  was  no  going  forward  in  mass 
lormation  under  barrage  or  protecting  curtain  of  fire,  but  out 
m  the  open  the  Marines  and  infantrymen  rushed  on  facing 
terrific  fire,  . 

BoisdeBelleau  was  cleared  of  the  Boche.  Bouresches  feU 
to  the  Americans.  The  capture  of  the  town  was  a  repetition 
of  the  taking  of  the  first  position.  Machine  guns  protected 
the  town  everywhere.  In  ceHar  windows,  doorways  and  on 
roofs  the  Germans  had  set  up  their  weapons.  But  it  was  the 
old  sto^--no  hail  of  shot  could  stop  the  Americans.  Almost 

rirr   iff'  T^^^  *?,^™§^  "R  supplies,  the  Americans 
h^ad^f ought  four  days  with  only  canned  foodstuffs  to  sustain 

Stories  of  the  fights  are  reminiscent  of  those  in  which 
American  troops  engaged  the  Indians  on  the  plains  in  the 
frontier  days.  Indeed  American  Indians-children  of  the 
famous  old  Sioux  and  Chippewa  tribes  of  Eed  Men-acted 

It  IS  estimated  that  7000  were  killed  or  wounded  by  the 
more  than  1000.   How  privates  took  command  of  squads  and 


AMERICANS  TURN  WAR'S  TIDE  493, 

continued  to  outbattle  the  enemy  when  officers  were  killed;  how 
lone  Americans  or  small  groups  of  them  captured  squads  of 
Huns  or  annihilated  them,  are  common  stories  of  heroism  writ- 
ten into  the  official  war  records  of  the  American  Expeditionary; 
Forces  in  France,  and  sealed  by  medals  of  honor  presented  to 
young  Americans  or  confirmed  by  official  words  of  commenda- 
tion. 

OCet  the  words  of  General  Pershing  in  an  official  order  to 
his  troops  on  August  2T>  stand  as  part  of  the  record: 

"It  fills  me  with  pride  to  record  in  General  Orders  a 
tribute  to  the  service  achievements  of  the  First  and  Third 
Corps,  comprising  the  First,  Second,  Third,  Fourth,  Twenty- 
sixth,  Twenty-eighth,  Thirty-second  and  Forty-second  Divis- 
ions of  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces. 

"You  came  to  the  battlefield  at  a  crucial  hour  for  tS^ 
Allied  cause.  For  almost  four  years  the  most  formidable  army 
the  world  has  yet  seen  had  pressed  its  invasion  of  France  and 
stood  threatening  its  capital.  At  no  time  has  that  army  been 
more  powerful  and  menacing  than  when,  on  July  15,  it  struck 
again  to  destroy  in  one  great  battle  the  brave  men  opposed  to 
it  and  lo  enforce  its  brutal  wiU  upon  the  world  and  civilization. 
"Three  days  later,  in  conjunction  with  our  Allies,  you  coun- 
ter-attacked. The  Allied  armies  gained  a  brilliant  victory  that 
marks  the  turning  point  of  the  war.  [You  did  more  than  to 
give  the  AUies  the  support  to  whicH  asJ  a  nation  our  faith  was 
pledged. 

"You  proved  tEa?  cm-  altruism,  our  pacific  spirit  and  oui: 
sense  of  justice  have  not  blunted  our  virility  or  our  courage. 

"You  have  shown  that  American  initiative  and  energy  are 
as  fit  for  the  tasks  of  war  as  for  the  pursuits  of  peace.  You 
have  justly  won  unstinted  praise  from  our  AUies  and  the 
eternal  gratitude  of  our  countrymen. 

"We  have  paid  for  successes  with  the  lives  of  many  of  our 
Krave  comrades.    We  shall  cherish  their  memory  always  and 


494  AMERICANS  TURN  WAR'S  TIDE 

claim  for  our  history  and  Uterature  their  bravery,  achievement 
and  sacrifice. 

"  Jhis  order  wiU  be  read  to  aU  organizations  at  the  first 
assembly  formations  following  its  receipt." 

Aside  from  being  largely  responsible  for  stopping  the 

Si'^'.f  ""t^^^^  ^*  *^^  ^^""^^^  ^^  ^^Pl«^t«  ^f  the  Americans 
filled  the  Trench  and  English  with  confidence,  aroused  their 
spirits  and  gave  them  renewed  hope.  Incidentally  their  efforts 
and  methods  made  apparent  the  value  of  surprise  attacks  and 
guick  blows  in  dealing  with  the  stolid  Huns. 
_..  iThe  Allied  commanders,  fluick  to  take  advantage  of  the 
Situation,  gave  the  enemy  no  chance  to  consolidate  their  posi- 
tions. •  JThe  unified  forces  of  Allies  attacked  with  renewed 
energy  all  along  the  line,  and  the  Huns  were  forced  back  with 
a  sweep  that  astonished  the  world. 

By  September!  1,  the  Germans  had  lost  practicaUy  all  that 
they  had  gained  in  their  drive  from  March  21,  and  in  many 
places  they  had  been  driven  back  across  the  famous  Hinden- 
burg  Ime,  Jhe  furthest  point  of  retreat  of  the  Germans  in  1914, 
when  they  were  forced  back  by  General  Joffre  from  the  Marne, 
and  dug  themselves  into  pit  and  trench.  Dozens  of  towns  were 
taken  and  more  than  120,00ft  prisoners  were  bagged. 

Ahnost  as  spectacular  in  its  effect  on  the  minds  of  the 
French  and  English,  as  was  the  demonstration  of  American 
fighting,  was  the  work  accomplished  in  France  in  providing 
foi-  the  transportation  and  care  of  the  incoming  troops.  Here 
great  docks,  storage  plants,  training  camps,  aviation  schools, 
motor  assembling  plants,  base  hospitals  and  reclamation  es- 
tablishments and  raikoads,  bmlt  in  less  than  a  year  and  stiU 
growing,  represented  an  investment  of  $35,000,000  on  the 
part  of  the  United  States  Government  in  August,  1918. 

Early  in  May  the  number  of  Americans  in  France  was 
about  500,000.  That  this  number  should  have  been  sent  across 
the  ocean  within  the  space  of  one  year  after  America  entered 


AMERICANS  TURN  WAR'S  TIDE  WB 

the  war  was  regarded  as  a  distinct  achievement,  but  by  Sep- 
tember it  was  officially  annomiced  that  the  nimiber  had  in- 
creased to  1,500,000. 

Some  of  these  were  sent  to  the  Italian  front  to  help  in 
the  drive  against  the  Austrians,  and  about  15,000  troops  from 
the  Phihppines  were  sent  by  the  United  States  into  Siberia  to 
give  moral  support  to  the  Czecho-Slovaks, 

The  decision  to  send  troops  to  Siberia  was  by  agreement 
with  the  Japanese,  and  followed  a  statement  issued  by  the 
[United  States  on  August  4,  in  which  it  was  stated  that  "miU- 
tary  action  was  admissable  in  Russia  only  to  render  such  pro- 
tection and  help  as  possible  to  the  Czecho-Slovaks  against 
armed  Austrian  and  German  prisoners  who  were  attacking 
them,  and  to  steady  any  efforts  at  self-government  or  self- 
defense  in  which  the  Russians  themselves  may  be  willing  to 
accept  assistance."  It  was  stated  that  the  troops  were  for 
guard  duty,  and  imder  the  agreement  with  Japan,  the  only 
other  country  in  a  position  to  act  in  Siberia,  each  nation  sent 
a  small  force  to  Vladivostok. 

The  British,  French  and  United  States  Governments  gav^ 
recognition  to  the  Czecho-Slovaks  as  an  Allied  nation — a 
geographical,  political  and  military  entity — ^with  three  armies, 
one  in  Siberia^  one  in  Italy  and  one  in  France,  where  they  had 
been  fighting  with  the  Allies  to  crush  the  Huns.  The  territory 
wliich  the  Czecho-Slovaks  claim  as  their  own  to  govern  inde- 
pendently comprises  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Silesia  and  Slavonika, 
which  lie  between  and  are  part  of  Austria-Hungary  and 
Germany. 

iWith  the  facilities  for  Handling  the  troops  abroad  thor- 
oughly organized  and  the  obvious  necessity  for  furnishing 
greater  manpower  to  bring  about  an  early  defeat  of  Germany, 
the  United  States  decided  to  increase  the  scope  of  its  conscrip- 
tion and  to  raise  an  army  of  3,000,000  for  immediate  service 
and  adopted  a  new  manpower  bill  which  was  passed  by  Con- 


^^^  .  AMERICANS  TURN  WAR'S  TIDE 

/ 
gress  the  last  week  in  August  and  signed  by  President  Wilsm 
on  August  30.  / 

,The  measure  provided  for  the  registration  and  drafting 
of  all  male  citizens  between  the  ages  of  18  and  45  years,  allow- 
ing for  deferred  classification  of  those  engaged  in  essential 
work  or  having  obligations  which  made  it  impossible  for  them 
to  render  active  military  service. 

Not  only  the  Alhed  successes  on  tEe  western  front,  but 
also  those  on  the  ItaHan  front  and  in  the  Balkans,  where  the 
French,  Italians  and  Greeks  in  Albania,  with  a  million  troops, 
advanced  against  the  Germans,  Austrians  and  Turks,  made 
apparent  the  necessity  for  further  concentration  of  manpower. 
While  losing  ground  on  the  western  front  and  rapidly 
being  forced  to  the  wall,  Germany  gave  another  spectacular 
twist  to  her  military  program  by  carrying  the  war  to  America's 
doors.  With  her  submarines  she  sank  nearly  two  score  of  ships, 
schooners,  barges,  tugs,  and  even  a  lightship,  within  a  few 
miles  of  New  York,  Boston,  Norfolk,  Charleston  and  the  Del- 
aware Capes. 

But  while  the  IT-boats  were  harassing,  no  effective  as- 
saults were  made  against  the  ships  which  carried  American 
troops  abroad.  In  this  connection  it  should  never  be  forgotten 
in  the  glamour  of  war  that  while  America  performed  wonders 
in  getting  her  soldiers  overseas,  England  provided  most  of  the 
ships,  and  that  it  was  England's  Navy  which  kept  the  German 
Navy  in  check  while  America's  war  vessels  and  destroyers  con- 
voyed the  troopships  and  protected  them  from  the  submarines. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 
Victory — Peace. 

The  German  Empire  Collapses— Foch's  Stbategy  Wins— Amebican  Inspiration 
A  Big  Factor— BITT.GARIA,  Turkey  and  Austria  Quit  War— Monakchs  Fall- 
Kaiser  Abdicates  and  Flees  Germany— Armistice  Signed— November  11, 
Peace. 

THEN  came  the  fall  of  autocracy- 
Victory  !    Peace  I 

With  a  crash  that  echoed  around  the  world  the 
autocratic  governmental  structure  builded  by  the  Kaiser 
and  his  forebears  gave  way  and  came  tumbling  to  the  earth 
in  ruins  on  Monday,  November  11,  1918. 

iThe  most  momentous  event  in  ages  had  come  to  pass 
and  victory  was  perched  upon  the  banner  of  democracy. 

Out  of  the  sacrifice  of  millions  of  lives,  the  desolation 
of  homes  and  countries,  the  expenditure  of  untold  energy 
and  incomprehensible  billions  of  dollars  in  money,  there 
came  everlasting,  glorious  peace. 

The  great  German  Empire  lay  a  wreck,  given  into  the 
hands  of  the  people  for  remaking,  and  the  arrogant  Em- 
peror William  HohenzoUern  had  fled  into  Holland,  and 
his  example  was  imitated  by  the  Crown  Prince. 
THE  COMING  OF  THE  END. 
The   end   came   swiftly   and   with   dramatic    action. 
[Beaten  back  by  the  Allied  forces,  which  gathered  strength 
and  inspiration  from  the  irresistible  American  troops,  the 
German  army  weakened  all  along  the  line  from  Holland 
to  the  Swiss  border.    The  press  of  power  exerted  against 
the  German  strongholds  on  every  side  was  felt  within  the 
domains  and  produced  internal  strife  and  dissension  which 
undermined    and    weakened    the    military    organization. 
Taking  full  advantage  of  this  situation,  the  Allied  forces 
on  every  side  quickened  and  intensified  their  blows. 

497 


*^^  VICTORY— PEACE. 


.f  .  J^^^i"'^"*  ^^""^^^^y  ^^  ^^^«^al  Foeh,  generalissimo 

advant  of  r    f  ,t?%^r^'^^  ^'  ^"  ^^^  t^^  German 
the  Marne  t  „*'/"?  '^  ^'^^'^  "^^  «^<^«"d  battle  of 

tlie  Marne,  he  compelled  a  hurried  retirement  to  the  Hin 
denbnrg  Ime  with  the  evacuation  of  practically  allthel  r- 
ritory  conquered  by  the  Huns.  ^ 

war  ^bTiif'  hT^^i  ""^^  ^'  *'™^*1  t^«  l««t  phase  of  the 
tTrust\  t.  '?  ^^^'^r-li^ed  the  German  forces.  The 
thrust  m  this  phase  was  started  by  the  Anglo-Beldan 
forces  in  Planders  and  the  Franco-^erican  arSln 
Lorraine  on  September  26.  " 

betwJp^rf  o''T  .^^'^^!!^^  ^  gigantic  and  brilliant  drive 
oerense  system  of  the  Germans  was  shattered  and  in  less 
5  OoV.,m:  "^"*^-«-  than  100,000  German  prisoneS  and 
^000  guns  were  taken  and  8,000  square  miles  of  French  and 
Belgian  territory  liberated. 

VICTORIES  ON  OTHER  FRONTS 

liSed  Svrt  ir'™^/'"^'  *^'  P"^^^  ^^  Turkey  and 
liberated  Syria,  Mesopotamia  and  Arabia.    In  Macedonia 
too,  an  army  made  up  of  soldiers  of  many  nations  under  a 
French  command  compelled  the  surrender  of  Bulgari  anl 

tirm^eiTkLr  * ''' '-'  -^*^-  ^'  <^^—  - 

On  the  Austrian  front  likewise  the  Italian  armv 

ctTnd  Ame/f  '^^^*^"^^  'y  '^^  presenc*:  oTa^^S 
one  of  tbf  .  T'  '^'P*  *^'  Austrians  before  them  in 
rre  than  300  0^00*"'^^"'  '"''"^^"^^  «^  *^«  --'  -Pt-ing 


VICTORY— PEACE.  499 

This  in  brief  is  the  way  the  German  command  was 
driven  to  a  point  of  seeking  peace  to  prevent  the  invasion 
of  their  territory. 

The  brilliant  assaults  of  the  various  units  and  com- 
mands of  the  Allies  at  points  along  the  entire  200  miles  of 
western  front  will  go  down  in  history  a  wonderful  military 
achievement. 

AMERICAN  VICTORIES  ON  THE  EAST  FRONT. 

One  of  the  wonderful  attacks  was  that  of  the  American 
First  Army  under  General  Pershing,  when  St.  Mihiel 
salient  was  annihilated.  This  salient  for  four  years  resisted 
all  efforts  to  penetrate  it  and  stood  a  guardian  to  great  iron 
fields  running  through  the  Basin  de  Briey  to  the  Belgian- 
Luxemburg  frontier.  It  formed  a  strong  outpost  to  the 
fortified  city  of  Metz,  with  its  twenty-eight  forts,  and  made 
impossible  the  invasion  of  German  Lorraine  from  the  west. 

The  offensive  of  General  Pershing  was  one  of  the  most 
carefully  planned  of  the  war.  More  than  1,000  tanks  were 
operated  to  open  the  way  for  the  infantry  and  cavalry.  A 
(greater  force  of  airplanes  than  were  ever  concentrated  in 
a  single  attack  menaced  the  Germans  overhead  and  in  a 
week  the  Americans  encoinpassed  a  territory  of  200  square 
miles  and  threatened  the  mining  center  and  the  forts  of 
Metz,  capturing  20,000  prisoners  and  hundreds  of  guns  and 
great  quantities  of  ammunition.  Moreover,  the  Verdun- 
Nancy  railway  was  released. 

Support  was  brought  to  the  Germans  and  they  stub- 
bornly resisted,  but  many  points  were  gained  and  held  by 
the  Americans. 

AMERICAN   VICTORIES   ALONG   THE   MEUSE-AISNE 

RIVERS. 
Another  corps  of  the  First  American  Army,  in  com- 
mand of  General  Himter  Liggett,  also  made  a  brilliant 


^^  VICTOBY— PEACE. 


attack  between  the  Meuse  and  Aisne  rivers  east  of  Rheims 
on  a  front  twenty  miles  long,  where  the  crack  Prussian 

w  ",  r.r  ''"^f  •  ^'''  ^  ^^'  °*  *^^  «>««*  bitterly  con- 
tested ba  ties  of  the  closing  days  the  Americans  made  an 
important  advance,  capturing  half  a  dozen  villages 

As  at  Chateau-Thierry,  the  Americans  in  the  face  of 
withenng  fire  and  against  all  the  instruments  of  modern 
warfare  handled  by  the  best  soldiers  in  Germany,  fought 
their  way  through  with  a  bravery  that  won  for  them  the 
praises  of  the  highest  commands  in  the  Prench  and  British 
armies,  as  well  as  from  General  Pershing 

to  +ht*f '  i!f  ^  f  ^'Iv^  *^'  '*™^^^"  ^^'  Americans  arose 
to  the  heights  of  sublime  heroism  in  crossing  the  river 
Meuse,  capturmg  the  town  of  Dun  and  later  the  town  of 
Sedan,  famous  as  one  of  the  scenes  of  bitter  fighting  in  the 
Franco-Prussian  War. 

GREAT  VICTORY  AT  SEDAN. 
_  The  Americans  forced  their  way  across  a  160-foot 
river,  a  stretch  of  mud  flats  and  a  60-foot  canal  in  the  face 
of  terrible  fire.  Men  who  could  swim  breasted  the  stream 
carrying  ropes,  which  were  stretched  from  bank  to  bank 
and  along  which  those  who  could  not  swim  made  their  wav 
over  the  river  Some  crossed  in  collapsible  boats,  others 
on  rafts  and  finally  on  pontoon  and  foot  bridges,  which 
were  constructed  under  the  enemy  fire. 

+1,  '^^^^  ^^J""^^  ^^^^  accomplished,  '  the  men  waded 
through  mud  to  the  canal,  fighting  as  they  went,  and  again 

^]  f  1'!!''  '  '^^*''"'  «^™«^i^g  the  canal,  at  the  far  side 
of  which  they  were  compeUed  to  use  grappling  hooks  and 
scahng  irons  to  mount  the  perpendicular  banks  of  the 
canal,  along  which  were  the  resisting  Germans.  And 
finally,  when  the  German  Empire  feU,  famed  Sedan  was  in 


VICTORY— PEACE.  501 

the  hands  of  the  Americans.  With  the  last  forward  move- 
ment they  took  possession  of  Stenay  when  hostilities  ceased. 
The  part  the  American  soldiers  played  in  winning  the 
war,  merely  as  a  matter  of  increased  man  power,  is  indi- 
cated by  the  fact  that  when  the  end  came  there  were 
2,900,000  men  in  the  forces  abroad. 

COLLAPSE  OF  THE  TEUTONIC  ALLIES. 

The  failure  of  the  German  submarine  warfare  and  the 
ability  of  the  British,  French  and  American  naval  forces 
to  protect  troop  ships  and  permit  the  landing  of  as  high  as 
200,000  soldiers  in  France  in  a  single  month,  had  much  to 
do  with  discouraging  the  German  command. 

The  withdrawal  of  Bulgaria  on  September  27  and  her 
unconditional  surrender  to  the  Allies  was  a  distinct  blow 
to  Germany.  The  abdication  of  King  Ferdinand  in  favor 
of  Crown  Prince  Boris  was  shortly  followed  by  the  sur- 
render and  withdrawal  of  Turkey,  which  further  weakened 
Germany's  position,  and  peace  offers  were  made  by  both 
Austria  and  by  Germany. 

Austria  sought  a  separate  peace,  but  Germany,  seeing 
the  handwriting  on  the  wall,  asked  for  an  armistice  through 
Prince  Maximilian  of  Baden,  who  had  succeeded  Count 
Von  Hertling  as  Chancellor.  But  while  agreeing  to  accept 
as  a  basis  of  peace  the  points  established  by  President 
Wilson  as  necessary  to  an  agreement,  Germany's  military 
forces  continued  their  ruthless  and  barbaric  warfare. 

President  Wilson  submitted  a  set  of  questions  to  the 
German  Government  to  ascertain  the  sincerity  and  pur- 
pose of  the  request  and  finally  brought  the  matter  to  an 
issue  by  declaring  that  nothing  short  of  a  complete  sur- 
render would  suffice  and  that  further  negotiations  must  be 
taken  up  with  the  Allied  command. 

Meantime  King  Boris  of  Bulgaria  abdicated  and  the 


^^  VICTORY— PEACE. 

Government  was  taken  over  by  the  people.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  surrender  of  Austria  on  November  8  and  the 
abdication  of  the  Emperor  Charles. 

THE  END. 
Austria  in  her  surrender  agreed  to  the  immediate  sus- 
pension of  hostilities,  the  demobilization  of  the  army  of 
Austro-Hungary  and  the  withdrawal  of  all  forces  from  the 
North  Sea  to  Switzerland,  the  evacuation  of  all  territories 
mvaded,  the  evacuation  of  all  German  troops  from  Austro- 
Hungarian  territory  and  the  Italian  and  Balkan  fronts  as 
well  as  the  surrender  of  fifteen  submarines  and  all  German 
submarmes  in  Austro-Hungarian  territorial  waters  to- 
gether with  thirty-four  warships,  and  also  the  repatriation 
o±  all  prisoners  of  war. 

With  her  forces  demoralized  and  Bulgaria,  Turkey 
and  Austria  out  of  the  war  and  her  power  broken  in  Eussia 
Germany  was  driven  to  the  necessity  of  accepting  terms 
submitted  by  the  Allies  as  the  basis  of  peace  as  outlined  by 
President  Wilson. 

SUMMARY. 

Thus  came  peace  after  fifty-two  continuous  months  of 
fighting,  in  which  it  is  estimated  that  nearly  10,000  000 
were  killed  and  that  there  were  about  27,000,000  casualties 
while    $200,000,000    were    expended    by    the    combined 
nations. 

America's  casualties  were  236,117,  divided  as  follows 
Killed  and  died  of  wounds,  36,154;  died  of  disease,  14,811 
died  from  unassigned  causes,  2,204;  wounded,  179,625 
missing,  1,160,  and  prisoners,  2,163. 

England  by  contrast  had  658,665  killed,  2,032,122 
wounded  and  359,145  missing  and  prisoners  during  the  four 
years,  while  Italy  had  about  1,600,000  casualties;  France, 
3,500,000;  Belgium,  400,000;  Eumania,  200,000,  and  Rus- 


VICTORY— PEACE.  503 

sia,  6,000,000.  All  told,  twenty-eight  nations,  witli  a  total 
population  of  approximately  1,600,000,000,  or  nearly 
eleven-twelfths  of  the  human  race,  were  involved  in  the 
world  struggle  at  the  close. 

TERMS    OF   THE   ARMISTICE   ACCEPTED   BY    GERMANY. 

I.    Military  Clauses  on  Western  Front: 

One— Cessation  of  operations  by  land  and  in  the  air  six  hours  after  the  signa- 
ture of  the  armistice. 

Two — Immediate  evacuation  of  invaded  countries:  Belgium,  France,  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  Luxemburg,  so  ordered  as  to  be  completed  within  fourteen  days  from 
the  signature  of  the  armistice.  German  troops  which  have  not  left  the  above- 
mentioned  territories  within  the  period  fixed  will  become  prisoners  of  war.  Occu- 
pation by  the  Allied  and  United  States  forces  jointly  will  keep  pace  with  evacuation 
in  these  areas.  All  movements  of  evacuation  and  occupation  will  be  regulated  in 
accordance  with  a  note  annexed  to  the  stated  terms. 

Three — Repatriation  beginning  at  once  and  to  be  completed  within  fourteen 
days  of  all  inhabitants  of  the  countries  above  mentioned,  including  hostages  and 
persons  under  trial  or  convicted. 

Four — Surrender  in  good  condition  by  the  German  armies  of  the  following 
equipment:  Five  thousand  guns  (two  thousand  five  hundred  heavy,  two  thousand 
five  hundred  field)  thirty  thousand  machine  guns.  Three  thousand  minenwerfers. 
Two  thousand  airplanes  (fighters,  bombers— firstly  D.  Seventy-three's  and  night 
bombing  machines).  The  above  to  be  delivered  in  situ  to  the  allies  and  the  United 
States  troops  in  accordance  with  the  detailed  conditions  laid  down  in  the  annexed 
note. 

Five — Evacuation  by  the  German  armies  of  the  countries  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine.  These  countries  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  shall  be  administered 
by  the  local  authorities  under  the  control  of  the  Allied  and  United  States  armies 
of  occupation.  The  occupation  of  these  territories  will  be  determined  by  Allied 
and  United  States  garrisons  holding  the  principal  crossings  of  the  Rhine,  Mayence, 
Coblenz,  Cologne,  together  with  bridgeheads  at  these  points  in  thirty  kilometre 
radius  on  the  right  bank  and  by  garrisons  similarly  holding  the  strategic  points 
of  the  regions. 

A  neutral  zone  shall  be  reserved  on  the  right  of  the  Rhine  between  the 
stream  and  a  line  drawn  parallel  to  it  forty  kilometres  (twenty-six  miles)  to  the 
east  from  the  frontier  of  Holland  to  the  parallel  of  Gernsheim  and  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable a  distance  of  thirty  kilometres  (twenty  miles)  from  the  east  of  stream  from 
this  parallel  upon  Swiss  frontier.  Evacuation  by  the  enemy  of  the  Rhine  lands 
shall  be  so  ordered  as  to  be  completed  within  a  further  period  of  eleven  days, 
in  all  nineteen  days  after  the  signature  of  the  armistice.  All  movements  of 
evacuation  and  occupation  will  be  regulated  according  to  the  note  annexed. 

Six — In  all  territory  evacuated  by  the  enemy  there  shall  be  no  evacuation 
of  inhabitants;  no  damage  or  harm  shall  be  done  to  the  persons  or  property  of 
the  inhabitants.    No  destruction  of  any  kind  to  be  committed.    Military  establish- 


504  VICTORT— PEACE. 

menta  of  all  kinds  shall  be  delivered  intact  as  we.l  as  military  stores  of  food 
munitions,  equipment  not  removed  during  the  periods  &Ked  for  evacuation.  Storei 
of  food  of  all  kinds  for  the  civil  population,  cattle,  etc.,  shall  be  left  in  situ.  Indus- 
trial establishments  shall  not  be  impaired  in  any  way  and  their  personnel  shall 
not  be  moved.  Roads  and  means  of  communication  of  every  kind,  railroad,  waterways, 
mam  roads,  bridges,  telegraphs,  telephones,  shall  be  in  no  manner  impaired 

•       T~f!^  ''"'\  ^""^  °'"'**''y  personnel  at  present  employed  on  them  shall 

lorr.es  in  good  working  order  with  all  necessary  spare  parts  and  fittings  shall  be 
delivered  to  the  associated  powers  within  the  period  fixed  for  the  evacuation  of 
Belgium  and  Luxemburg.  The  railways  of  Alsace-Lorraine  shall  be  handed  over 
withm  the  same  period,  together  with  all  pre-war  personnel  and  material.  Further 
materml  necessary  or  the  working  of  railways  in  the  country  on  the  left  bank  o 
the  Rhine  shall  be  left  in  situ.  All  stores  of  coal  and  material  for  the  upkeep  o 
TTTf  Tr  ''^"T^  -P---  ^l^oi"  '«"  -tire  in  situ  and  kept  in  an  effl- 
f  1  tW  An^  7T7  "f^  *""  '"""*  ^'"^  "'  """-*'»•  ^"  targes  taken 
oZ:^^lZ:t''  ""  '''''"'  *"  *'""°-    ^  "o*^  '''^^'''  -^■''*-  *^«  ''^f'"^ 

n,  nthf  ^''*r'^''f   ^""T"  "T^"^  '*'*"  ^  responsible  for  revealing  all  mines 

sLlf»-T^,  '/"'"'"''  ™  *'"""y  •^™'="^*^'J  ^y  '^'  German  troops  and 
shall  as  ist  in  their  discovery  and  destruction.  The  German  command  shall  also 
revea  all  destructive  measures  that  may  have  been  taken  (such  as  poisoning  or 
polluting  of  springs,  wells,  etc.)    under  penalty  of  reprisals  P^'^^'-S  »>■ 

<?t,f»/"'^'^'  If"^  "'  requisition  shall  be  exercised  by  the  Allied  and  the  United 
Lent  '^^'''"aing  Alsace-Lorraine),  shall  be  charged  to  the  Cferman  Govem- 

Ten— An  immediate  repatriation  without  reciprocity  according  to  detailed 
conditions  which  shall  be  fixed,  of  all  Allied  and  United  Itates  prisoners  of  win 

as  thei;  Wish!""  "  **'  ^''"^  ''"'"  ""  """^  *"  '''»P°-  ^'  t"-"  P-o-" 

torv  wmT~^'1  and  wounded,  who  can  not  be  removed  from  evacuated  terri- 
tory  will  be  cared  or  by  German  personnel  who  will  be  left  on  the  spot  with 
the  medical  material  required.  *^ 

IL    Disposition  Relative  to  the  Eastebn  Feontiebs  op  Gebmant: 

w.,  hJ""T7^'i  ^""""^  ^'■''"P'  "'  P'"'™*  '"  *"y  t^^'tOT  which  before  the 
war  belonged  to  Russia,  Rumania  or  Turkey  shall  withdraw  within  the  frontiers 
of  Germany  as  they  existed  on  August  1,  1914. 

Thirteen-Evacuation  by  German  troops  to  begin  at  once  and  all  German 
instructors,  prisoners  and  civilian  as  well  as  military  agents,  now  on  the  t^r" 
tory  of  Russia   (as  defined  before  1914)   to  be  recalled. 

».v  „^'"""*7-«':™«»  troops  to  cease  at  once  all  requistions  and  seizures  and 
any  other  undertaking  with  a  view  to  obtaining  supplies  intended  for  Germany  in 
Rumania  and  Russia  (as  defined  on  August  1,  1914). 

nf  ../'"^-Abandonment  of  the  treaties  of  Bucharest  and  Brest-Litovsk  and 
01  tne  supplementary  treaties. 

Sixteea-The  Allies  shall  have  free  access  to  the  territories  evacuated  by 


VICTORY— PEACE.  505 

the  Germans  on  their  eastern  frontier  either  through  Danzig  or  by  the  Vistula  in 
order  to  convey  supplies  to  the  population  of  those  territories  or  for  any  other 
purpose. 

III.    Clause  Concerning   East   Africa: 
Seventeen— Unconditional    capitulation    of   all    German    forces    operating    in 
East  Africa  within  one  month. 

IV.  General  Clauses: 

Eighteen— Repatriation,  without  reciprocity,  within  maximum  period  of  one 
month,  in  accordance  with  detailed  conditions  hereafter  to  be  fixed,  of  all  civilians 
interned  or  deported  who  may  be  citizens  of  other  Allied  or  associated  states  than 
those  mentioned  in  clause  three,  paragraph  nineteen,  with  the  reservation  that  any 
future  claims  and  demands  of  the  Allies  and  the  United  States  of  America  remain 
unaffected. 

Nineteen — The  following  financial  conditions  are  required:  Reparation  for 
damage  done.  While  such  armistice  lasts  no  public  securities  shall  be  removed  by 
the  enemy  which  can  serve  as  a  pledge  to  the  Allies  for  the  recovery  or  repatriation 
for  war  losses.  Immediate  restitution  of  the  cash  deposit,  in  the  National  Bank 
of  Belgium,  and  in  general  immediate  return  of  all  documents,  specie,  stocks,  shares, 
paper  money,  together  with  plant  for  the  issue  thereof,  touching  public  or  private 
interests  in  the  invaded  countries.  Restitution  of  the  Russian  and  Rumanian  gold 
yielded  to  Germany  or  taken  by  that  po\ver.  This  gold  to  be  delivered  in  trust  to 
the  Allies  until  the  signature  of  peace. 

V.  Naval  Conditions: 

Twenty — Immediate  cessation  of  all  hostilities  at  sea  and  definite  informa- 
tion to  be  given  as  to  the  location  and  movements  of  all  German  ships.  Notification 
to  be  given  to  neutrals  that  freedom  of  navigation  in  all  territorial  waters  is 
given  to  the  naval  and  mercantile  marines  of  the  allied  and  associated  powers, 
all  questions  of  neutrality  being  waived. 

Twenty-one — All  naval  and  mercantile  marine  prisoners  of  war  of  the  Allied 
and  associated  powers  in  German  hands  to  be  returned  without  reciprocity. 

Twenty-two — Surrender  to  the  Allies  and  the  United  States  of  America  of 
one  hundred  and  sixty  German  submarines  (including  all  submarine  cruisers  and 
mine  laying  submarines)  with  their  complete  armament  and  equipment  in  ports 
which  will  be  specified  by  the  Allies  and  the  United  States  of  America.  All  other 
submarines  to  be  paid  off  and  completely  disarmed  and  placed  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Allied  Powers  and  the  United  States  of  America. 

Twenty-three — The  following  German  surface  warships  which  shall  be  desig- 
nated by  the  Allies  and  the  United  States  of  America  shall  forthwith  be  disarmed 
and  thereafter  interned  in  neutral  ports  to  be  designated  by  the  Allies  and  the 
United  States  of  America  and  placed  under  the  surveillance  of  the  Allies  and  the 
United  States  of  America,  only  caretakers  being  left  on  board,  namely: 

Six  battle  cruisers,  ten  battleships,  eight  light  cruisers,  including  two  mine 
layers,  fifty  destroyers  of  the  most  modern  type.  All  other  surface  warships  (includ- 
ing river  craft)  are  to  be  concentrated  in  naval  bases  to  be  designated  by  the  Allies 
and  the  United  States  of  America,  and  are  to  be  paid  off  and  completely  disarmed 
and  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  Allies  and  the  United  States  of  America. 
All  vessels  of  auxiliary  fleet    (trawlers,  motor  vessels,  etc.),  are  to  be  disarmed. 


^^  VICTORY— PEACE. 

•  ^..  7'^^»*y'»'"— The  Allies  and  tl.e  United  States  of  America  shall  have  th. 
right  to  sweep  all  mine  fields  and  obstructions  laid  by  GerranTouts  de  gIJI 
territorial  waters,  and  the  positions  of  these  are  to  be  iLicatTd    ^  '    "" 

.,v  1  '^7"*y-«''^F'««'Jo'»  of  access  to  and  from  the  Baltic  to  be  given  to  the 
naval  and  mercantile  marine  of  the  Allied  and  associated  powers.    To  secure  this 
the  Alhes  and  the  United  States  of  America  shall  be  empowered  to  occupy  a 
German  forts,  fortifications,  batteries  and  defense  works  o^  all  kinds  In  a^f  «i 
entrances  from  the  Cattegat  into  the  Baltic,  and  to  sweep  „p  all  mines  and  lb 
8  ructions   within  and   without   German  territorial   waters'  without  anT  nuestio^ 

irr  in^d- S;''"^'''  '""'  ''"  ""'"'-'  "  ^"  ^'-^  -'-  -<•  '^^^^ 
Twenty-six— The  existing  blockade  conditions  qpf  im  h^  +t,^  An-  j 

an  materials  for  inland  navigation,  all  aircraft  and  all  materials  and  stores    in 
anns  and  armaments    and  all  stores  and  apparatus  of  all  kinds.  ' 

VI.    Duration  op  Armistice: 

to  exteld''*n'°"'~l'!'  ^'"^*'°"  "^  ^^'  """■'*'"«  ■■«  *«  ^  thirty  im,  with  option 
to  extend     During  this  period,  on  failure  of  execution  of  any  of  the  above  clauses 

ZrT^rlZSZi^J'''--'  ''  -  °^  ''^  contractingUies  TZ^^i 

VII.    Time  Limit  for  Reply- 

.eventSo^:r!f 'noS^;;:.  *°  "^  "'-''"'  "  "'"^^  "^  ^--"^  "'*•"» 


THE  NEQ^BO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR. 

BEFORE  THE  WAR. 

Civilization  evolves  destructive  forces  of  change.  War 
is  change  in  explosive  form.  World  notions,  points  of  view, 
and  general  ideas  of  1914  have  spun  the  cycle  of  years  with 
accelerated  speed.  At  that  time  the  public  mind  gained  its 
concept  of  the  Negro  from  encyclopaedic  information.  He 
was  regarded  as  a  *' sub-species  of  mankind,  dark  of  skin, 
wooly  of  hair,  long  of  head,  with  dilated  nostrils,  thick  lips, 
thicker  cranium,  flat  foot,  prehensible  great  toe  and  lark 
heel." 

He  was  described  as  a  creature  with  *^mental  constitu- 
tion very  similar  to  that  of  the  child,  on  a  lower  evolution- 
ary plane  than  the  white  man,  and  more  closely  related  to 
the  highest  anthropoids."  His  brain  weight,  we  were  told, 
was  35  ounces  as  compared  with  the  gorilla's  20  oimces  and 
the  Caucasians  45. 

In  America,  conception  of  the  Negro  has  ever  fluctu- 
ated in  direct  ratio  to  the  rise  and  fall  of  military  domina- 
tion of  the  affairs  of  the  republic.  Whenever  the  military 
agencies  of  the  government  have  been  exalted,  the  Negro 
has  been  benefited  by  reaction  of  the  public  mind.  Prom 
1865  to  1870  exaltation  of  the  military  element  of  American 
life  brought  along  not  only  emancipation  of  the  black  man, 
but  that  conception  of  him  which  resulted  in  the  conferring 
of  manhood  rights  and  privileges.  In  this  short  space  of 
five  years,  so  highly  had  the  Negro  come  into  public  estima- 
tion that,  with  the  protection  of  the  military  arm  of  the 
government,  there  were  actively  engaged  in  his  interest  an 
Emancipation  League,  a  Freedmen's  Pension  Society,  a 

507 


508  THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAS 

^'■f^*^.*"n^'!i^^^^®''^'  ^^^^®*'  *  I'reedmen's  Aid  Society 
of  the  M.  B.  Church,  a  Society  of  Friends  of  Great  Britaii 
and  Ireland  for  the  Belief  of  Emancipated  Slaves  of  Amer- 
ica, an  American  Missionary  Assoeiatio^i,  a  Freedmen's 
Bureau,  a  Freedmen's  Bank,  a  British  and  Foreign  Anti- 
blavery  Society,  an  American  Negro  Aid  Commission,  and 
other  organizations,  too  numerous  for  mention.  So  im- 
portant, however,  was  military  organization  and  predomi- 
nance to  the  success  of  any  one  of  these  organizations,  that 
Carl  Schurz,  reporting  to  Congress  the  Condition  of  the 
South,  declared:  "If  the  national  government  firmly  and 
unequivocally  announces  its  policy  not  to  give  up  the  con- 
trol of  free  labor  reform  until  it  is  firmly  accomplished,  the 
progress  of  the  reform  will  be  far  more  rapid  and  far  less 
difficult  than  it  will  be  if  the  attitude  of  the  government  is 
such  as  to  permit  contrary  hopes  to  be  indulged  in." 

In  1870,  as  the  military  power  of  the  United  States 
weakened  its  control  over  the  nation,  forces  of  opposition 
arose  to  pu^l  down  to  the  depths  the  black  man,  who  had 
been  exalted  by  the  agencies  of  military  government.    The 
Ku  KIux  Klan,  headed  by  the  Grand  Wizard  of  the  Invi- 
sib  e  Empire,  and  the  Grand  Dragon  of  the  Eeahn,  with 
malignant  fanaticism  worshipped  the  lost  cause.    Hatred 
o±  white  man  for  Negro,  accentuated  and  embittered  bv 
hatred  for  the  Yankee   carpet-bagger  and  the   southern 
scalawag,  resulted  in  the  rise  of  a  powerful  southern  par- 
tisanship stunned  only  so  long  as  military  power  held  sway. 
Peonage  took  place  of  colored  free  labor.    Disproportion- 
ate appropriation  of  taxes  between  blacks  and  whites  low- 
ered  the  Negro  measurably  year  by  year.    With  the  com- 
Sntriv  f  ^"i^rj^  ^"Preniacy,  the  Ku  Klux  courted 
publicity  which  It  had  hitherto  shunned.    A  leader,  the 
statesman  of  the  new  era,  in  the  person  of  the  late  Benia- 
mm  R.  Tillman,  of  South  Carolina,  appeared.   He  split  the 
loose  organization  of  southern  aristocracy  with  the  blacks 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR  509 

with  lily  white  wedge,  and  trampled  into  dust  every 
agency  which  favored  the  black  man.  He  deprived  the 
black  of  all  weapons  of  offence  or  defence,  disfranchised 
him,  shunted  him  off  into  the  ghetto,  and  called  the  world 
to  mock  him  in  his  lowly  position.  This  southern  states- 
man lived  to  see  the  Solid  South  come  into  national  power 
in  1912.  Prom  that  time,  until  the  beginning  of  the  world 
war  in  1914,  the  American  negro  reached  the  lowest  point 
of  his  political  and  social  status. 

Compared  with  Anglo-Saxon,  Frenchman,  Italian, 
Austrian,  German  or  Eussian,  he  was  of  an  order  and  de- 
gree reputed  farthest  down.  No  celebrity  attached  to  his 
menial  state.  No  distinction  might  be  his  as  an  award  from 
the  courts  of  nations.  Dignity,  grandeur  and  majesty  ap- 
plied to  Guelphs,  Hapsburgs  and  HohenzoUerns.  Theirs 
was  all  arrogation  of  supereminence.  And  to  them  all,  the 
Negro,  throughout  the  world,  was,  if  a  man  at  all,  pre- 
eminently the  mere  Man  Friday. 

From  such  a  status  of  debasement,  existing  in  an  in- 
tolerable atmosphere  of  derogation  and  disrepute,  the  hum- 
ble and  humiliated  American  Negro  sought  the  exaltation 
of  international  honor.  Denied  and  disavowed  at  home, 
through  vicissitude  of  international  war,  he  hoped  for 
affirmation  of  a  new  world  dictum  in  acknowledgment  of 
his  human  qualities  and  worth.  He  did  not,  like  Toussaint, 
long  for  the  high  honors  of  the  continental  emperor.  He 
sought  democratic  equality,  and  he  would  as  lief  think  of 
bringing  the  Kaiser  to  his  level  as  exalting  himself  to  the 
plane  of  that  immortal  celebrity. 

He  wanted  to  make  good  in  public.  He  wanted  to 
demonstrate  both  efficiency  and  initiative.  He  desired  that 
popular  belief  conceive  him  as  a  man,  not  a  monkey.  He 
wished  the  Caucasian  world  to  take  into  its  head  that  he 
might  function  as  a  valuable  and  serviceable  element  of 
twentieth  century  civilization.    He  yearned  to  reveal  his 


610  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAB 

powers  in  every  field  of  endeavor.    And  he  expected  that 
when  the  Caucasian  had  arrived  at  a  fair  judgment  in  his 
behalf,  he  would  issue  to  him  the  warrant  certifying  that 
he  was  four-square  with  the  dominant  opinion  of  mankind 
and,  therefore,  entitled  to  the  honors  of  superior  status. 

He  auned  to  compensate  the  world  by  presenting  a  con- 
cept of  beauty  in  place  of  a  general  notion  of  repellent  ugli- 
ness. Instead  of  being  regarded  as  E  "Hottentot  with  cKck- 
mg  palate,  whom  the  meanest  of  the  rest  look  down  upou 
for  all  his  glimmering  language  and  spirituality, "  he  wishe(i 
the  world  to  find  in  him  fitness  for  survival,  conformity 
TOth  civilization's  ideal,  example  of  the  world  philosophy 
of  forbearance,  human  relationships,  symmetry  and  poise 
in  adaptation  to  the  world's  tasks,  and  moderation  in  respect 
of  the  higher  laws,  whose  harmonies  order  and  reetif  v  all 
creation. 

He  sought  to  neutralize  the  misteachings  of  Adam 
Smith,  of  Darwin  and  Defoe.  Smith's  "Wealth  of  Na- 
tions" presumed  the  material  debasement  of  darker 
peoples  of  colonial  populations,  or,  in  lieu  thereof,  such 
debasement  of  Slav,  Serf  or  Serbian  as  would  compensate 
the  vanity  of  the  superior  people.  Indirectly,  Darwin 
taught,  that  the  Negro  closely  approached  the  missing  link 
between  the  savage  beast  and  the  human.  Defoe  delighted 
the  world  with  a  picture  of  the  ideal  economic  status  for 
the  maintenance  of  white  superiority  over  black  man.  These 
ideas  the  Negro  wished  to  topple  over. 

He  felt  it  necessary  to  repudiate  the  indoctrination  of 
racial  hatred  proclaimed  throughout  the  world  by  "The 
Birth  of  a  Nation. "  He  set  over  against  it  the  reception  by 
all  civilization  of  the  Booker  T.  Washington  life  story.  He 
wished  to  substitute  recognition  of  worth  in  place  of  the 
things  that  debase  and  make  ashamed. 

His  great  puzzle  was  the  Anglo-Saxon,  cold,  austere 
&nd  uncomplaisant.     This  Caucasian,  fair  of  skin,  with 


THE  NEGKO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAE  811 

< 

smooth  and  wavy  hair,  small  cheekbones  and  elevated  fore- 
head, appeared  a  worshipful  master  whose  station,  under 
God,  was  of  preordained  and  predestined  eminence.  Occu- 
pying Eurasia  from  the  Channel  to  the  Ganges,  together  with 
the  most  favored  portions  of  Africa  and  America,  he  was 
the  author  and  agency  for  law  and  order  for  the  world.  St. 
Augustine,  first  archbishop  and  lawgiver  of  Canterbury, 
himself  of  African  descent,  the^  son  of  Monica  and  Patri- 
cius  of  Carthage,  had  left  the  Anglo-Saxon  from  semi- 
barbarism  to  his  position  of  world  renown.  Would  this 
^nglo-Saxon  ever  degrade  the  sons  of  women  of  Africa? 

The  Negro's  next  puzzle  was  the  French,  urbane, 
amenable  and  suave.  Negro  emotions  and  French  sensibili- 
ties mingled  even  without  recourse  to  the  vehicle  of  lan- 
guage. Imbued  with  all  the  finer  Latin  qualities  and  char- 
acteristics, the  French  ever  invited  the  black  man  to  a  social 
world  which  the  Anglo-Saxon  denied  him.  E.  W.  Lightner, 
writing  as  a  war  correspondent,  says : 

'*Long  previous  to  the  war  thousands  of  blacks  from 
various  States  of  Africa  were  in  France,  most  especially 
Paris,  at  the  universities,  in  business  and  in  the  better 
ranges  of  service.  Everywhere  and  by  all  sorts  and  condi- 
tions of  whites,  they  were  treated  as  equals.  During  sev- 
eral visits  to  the  French  capital  I,  an  American,  knowing 
full  well  the  prejudices  of  whites  of  this  country  against 
the  race,  was  amazed  to  see  the  cordial  mingling  of  all 
phases  of  the  cosmopolitan  population  of  the  French  capi- 
tal. Eefined  white  men  promenaded  the  streets  with  re- 
fined black  women,  and  the  two  races  mingled  cordially  in 
studies,  industries  and  athletic  sports.  White  and  black 
artists  had  ateliers  in  common  in  the  Latin  quarter.    .    ,    . " 

Thus,  at  hob  and  nob  with  the  civilities  and  honors  and 
embraces  of  this  social  life,  the  Negro  felt  an  unaccustomed 
giddiness  seize  him.  This  giddiness  was  not  caused  by  lack 
of  social  poise,  nor  incited  by  the  French,  but  it  arose  from 
the  dilemma^  or  rather  periX  in  which  the  French  inter- 


612  THE  KEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAB 

course  placed  Mm  with  relation  to  the  adjustment  of  darker 
races  to  Anglo-Saxon  civilization. 

Nevertheless  in  1914,  the  approach  to  this  court  of 
honour  and  equality  must  be  made  by  the  Negro— and 
made  under  restraint  sufficient  to  assure  Anglo-Saxon  ap- 
proval. This  was,  indeed,  a:  complex  problem.  Traducers 
proclaimed  his  undeveloped  capacities;  he  answered  with  a 
claim  of  long  repressed  aptitudes.  They  spoke  of  intoler- 
able coalescence;  he  claimed  that  the  times  demanded  im- 
perative coexistence.  They  said  he  had  no  soul ;  he  claimed 
the  over-soul.  They  asserted  his  lecherous  character;  he 
referred  to  statistics.  But  when  they  claimed  he  was  pro- 
German,  he  stripped  for  action.  World  war,  and  France, 
prostrate  amid  its  terrors,  offered  the  Negro  the  great  op- 
portunity of  the  centuries  to  refute  the  broadcast  propa- 
ganda of  his  enemies. 

Beyond  the  French  appeared  the  German,  ungainly, 
acrimonious  and  obdurate.  Part  Saxon,  part  Hun,  part 
Vandal  and  .Visigoth,  a,  creature  of  blood  and  iron,  he 
utilized  every  force  of  nature  to  exterminate  his  enemies. 
The  Negro  knew  how  to  exploit  none  of  nature's  elemental 
energies.  But  he  did  know  that  he  could  learn  how  by  seiz- 
ing and  mastering  the  weapons  of  the  enemy. 

Of  the  energies  of  earth  he  lacked  both  scientific  mas- 
tery and  the  weapons  which  give  them  offensive  power  and 
direction.  Of  the  air  he  lacked  all  control.  Fire  he  utilized 
only  for  purposes  of  cooking  food,  but  not  for  the  develop- 
ment of  machinery  of  warfare.  He  has  no  vessel  upon  all 
the  seven  seas.  To  seize  and  master  and  utilize  these  ener- 
gies appeared  a  thankless  job,  albeit  a  necessary  one.  He 
voted  a  grim  *  *  Aye. ' ' 

In  doing  so,  he  accepted  the  challenge  of  no  mere 
enigma.  Of  his  own  volition,  he  entered  upon  the  path  that 
led  through  untrod  and  dangerous  ground.  It  was  his 
problem  to  cut  the  Gordian  knot  of  Anglo-Saxon  icy  reserve 


v>     •, 


THE  AEREST  OF  THE  ASSASSIN   ^""^^  underwooa  &  unUerwood' 


NATIONAL  GUARDSMAN  WEARING  COMPLETE  EQUIPMENT,  £JaDY  FOR  WAr"'"''"' 
BmtnZZL^VoSZer^^^^^^^^  «^  artides,skil]fully  packed  so  that  they  make  a 

bag,  cartridge  beltTcanteeif  ^a?    tS?^p    Vnfff  S.'lf  * .  ^^^  ^'^  mciudea  a  blanket,  rifle,  bayonet,  kit 
miscellaneous  art  clS.TArXtolhowit^^  ^^^J^^'*,  ^^^"^^t  aud  other 

attached.  ^  siiowa  three  views-side,  front   and   back,  with  equipment 


©Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 
CARRYING  OLD  GLORY  THROUGH  LONDON. 
.^„o£^"^K«^*?*^^   soldiers,  carrying  the  Stars  and  Stripes  and  Regimental  Standard. 


SOT.DIEKS  OF  THR  DIFFERENT  NATIO! 
This  picture  shows  the  portraits  and  headdress  of  45  differ 


JTTES  ENGAGED  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR. 
representative  fighters  now  engaged  in  the  European  war; 


Photo  International  'Film  Service. 
CAPTURE  OF  BAPAUME  BY  BRITISH. 
Scene  on  the  day  British  troops  entered  Bapaume,  a  French  city  eyacuated  hy^  the  Germans  in 
their  retreat  to  the  Hindenburg  line.    Cheerful  British  soldiers  are  seen  m  a  street. 


Photo  Underwood  &  Underwood. 
FRENCH  PASSING  THROUGH  RECAPTURED  NO  YON. 
They  are  on  the  heels  of  the  Germans.    The  photograph  shows  how  the  town  was  wrecked  by  tU© 
'^  Germans  before  they  eyacuated. 


o      .  j2  ^ 
g   M«2 

EJ    >^  0)  CO 

O   QDoi  > 

S  03  © 

f^  §5  3 

u     -=<?« 


"  V— I— C— T— 0— E— Y." 
Sailors  spelling  the  word  «•  VICTORY"  with  flags. 


Underwood  &  Underwood. 


©N,  G.  Moser. 
From  Underwood  &  Underwood. 
Sighting  through  the  40  power  telescope  on  the  U.  S.  S.  Pennsylvania.    Objects  at  great  distances 
are  clearly  distinguished  through  this  telescope. 


BRITISH  SAILORS  IN  NEW  YORK  ®^"^^"^^"  ^'^^^  Asaociation. 
They  are  from  the  H.  M.  S.  Roxburgh,  and  took  part  .in  welcoming  the  arrival  of  Gen.  Joffre 

m  New  York  City  «w"*c 


n^^,    ,.      ,  IHE  GREAT  AMERICAN  HABIT.''''"'"-  *"«'*'"'  Press  Assoclatloa 


■S'i-  -'^v-'-.^.V^.'^ 


>     CO   'O 

<U    t3 


THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAR      ^^^ 

that  in  the  end  fair  England  might  assume  as  a  policy 
of  world  administration  the  award  of  citizenship  rights  to 
the  darker  races  in  the  sphere  of  influence  of  the  league  of 
civilized  nations.  It  was  a  part  of  this  problem  to  enter  the 
equation  with  such  deliberate  caution  as  to  upset  no  part  o± 
the  nicely  calculated  adjustments  of  white  to  darker 
peoples.  And  it  was  also  a  part  of  l^is  Problem  that  he 
should  not  relinquish  his  grasp  upon  the  factors  that  led  to 
honor,  recognition  and  equality. 

Germany  was  indignant  as  the  Negro  sought  entry  to 
the  war.  The  South  was  sensitive.  The  North  was  quiz- 
zical. The  whole  world  was  hesitant.  The  too  ardent  favor 
which  the  Negro  found  in  Prance  gave  offence  to  both 
America  and  England.  Indeed,  for  the  Negro  to  lift  him- 
self too  rapidly  by  his  own  bootstraps  would  have  offended 
England,  whose  law  prohibited  emigration  of  foreign  Ne- 
groes  to  South  Africa.  And  it  would  also  offend  America, 
strangely  jealous  of  any  sig-n  of  unwanted  assertiveness  the 
Negro  might  display.  The  Negro  accepted  the  challenge 
to  penetrate  this  maze  and  labyrinth,  with  no  surety,  save 
God's  good  grace,  of  the  fate  that  lay  beyond. 

To  attain  the  goal  of  Eecognition,  it  was  necessary  for 
Mm  to  demand  of  the  people  of  England,  fiance  and  Italy, 
that  he  be  made  subject  to  every  test  calculated  to  revea 
his  worth  or  inferiority  as  an  individual,  ^-^T' P«^J\^ 
or  social  equal  of  the  allied  peoples.    The  goal  o*  H«nor^  ^^ 
had  attained  in  every  war  waged  by  America.   He  was  witti 
Jackson  at  New  Orllans,  a  pioneer  in  the  Mexican  s  rugg  e, 
200,000  strong  in  the  great  civil  crisis  the  acme  of  terroi 
to  Geronimo  in  the  later  Indian  wars,  the  hero  of  San  Juan 
in  the  Spanish-American  combat,  and  at  Oarrizal  in  the 
latest  Mexican  imbroglio.    By  1914,  however,  he  had  lost 
aU  rewards  of  honor  which  he  had  previously  won     As  tor 
Equality,  since  the  Civil  War,  he  had  been  guaranteed  this 


514  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR 

I to"^  t:!"T''^fr^'  ^'  *^^  Oonsmutlon  of  the  United 
otates.    These  forgotten  amendments  read  in  part  • 

been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  th^lSitedSta^p^ 
or  any  pace  subject  to  their  jurisdiction    .  ^*^*''' 

.r.A    I-  ^^l^^'^l  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  Stafp^ 

S  dttl*s'SdSlStr/\^^^^^^ 

the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizIS  of  thp  TW^^ 
States;  nor  shall  deprive  any  person  of  lif^  Kh  V  ^'^'^ 
property,  without  due  procesi  o^f  aw  nor  denv  to  «^^'  """^ 
son^  within  its  jurisdLion  the  e'urprZctfon'Tf  ^tl" 

..oi  ''?!P^esentatives  shall  be  apportioned  amons  the  sev 

«=-Tptst^^^^^^^^^^ 

state  on  account  of  race,  color  or  previous  condition  of  serZ 

America  of  1914  was  prone  to  look  upon  this  part  of 
the  Constitution  as  a  mere  scrap  of  paper.  From  what 
point  of  vantage  might  the  Negro  hope  for  Honor,  Recog- 
mtion  and  Equality  at  the  hands  of  the  allied  governments  ? 

Land  of  the  free  and  home  of  the  brave,  America  is 
assumed  to  be  so  openhearted,  munificent  and  princely,  so 
liberal  and  so  generous  that  could  she  but  behold  a  man,  of 
whatever  hue,  trampled  in  the  mire,  or  hear  his  piteous  cry, 
she  would  hasten  to  his  aid  and  deliver  Hm.    So  much  does 

snWt  3'/!Tf  ^"""^^  ^^"*^  *^^*  ^  «^^"  «f  heart  and 

K  !f  ?     .      i'  "^'^''^  P'"'^  ^h"«  «he  is  nigh  at  hand, 
buch,  at  least,  is  the  assumption. 

From  the  debasement  of  industrial  serfdom,  the  black 
workman  wished  the  American  people  of  1914  to  stop  the 
trend  ot  their  strenuous  existence  and  behold  him    .    .    . 


THE  NEGBO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAE  ^^^ 

and  test  liim  .  .  •  and  proclaim  Mm.  He  not  only  wished 
to  be  given  a  free  field  and  a  fair  chance  to  work  at  the  same 
job,  for  the  same  wage,  during  the  same  hours,  and  under 
the'  same  conditions  as  the  white  workman,  but  he  was 
ready  to  contend  for  all  of  the  industrial  privileges. 

The  black  man  of  business  not  only  wished  to  enter  into 
business  competition  with  members  of  the  Caucasian  race 
under  the  same  conditions  as  customarily  pertam  to  such 
arrangements,  but  he  was  eagerly  hoping  to  insure  adjust- 
ment of  this  situation.  The  black  social  outcast  wished 
*^jim-crow"  railway  accommodations  and  signs  proclaim- 
ing inequality  of  race  to  disappear.  He  wished  sufficient 
education  to  enable  Fim  to  develop  his  own  society.  He^ 
too,  was  willing  for  a  world  war,  for  he  had  come  to  the 
point  where  he  desired  immediate  and  explosive  change. 
Looked  down  upon  because  of  his  despised  blood,  the  black 
American  wished  to  elevate  the  status  of  his  womankind, 
too  long  disproved  and  betrayed,  to  the  level  of  free  and 
brave  womanhood  of  all  the  civUized  world.  Concerning 
this  situation  he  was  grim.  It  required  but  a  spark  applied 
here  to  explode  with  terrific  outburst  the  sinister  silence  of 
the  volcano. 

But  in  India,  in  South  Africa,  in  Nigeria,  and  in  all 
countries  where  English  rule  held  sway,  England  was  com- 
mitted to  the  policy  of  the  white  overseer  or  foreman  for 
the  black  exponent  of  industry.  Nor  could  she,  save 
through  war,  adopt  a  policy  of  employing  either  Indians  or 
Africans  at  the  same  job  and  for  the  same  wage  as  that 
received  by  members  of  the  British  Labor  Party.  On  the 
other  hand,  France,  whose  political  life  was  convulsed  from 
1894  to  1899  by  principles  of  racial  prejudice  exhibited  in 
the  Dreyfus  case,  offered  every  form  of  equality  to  the 
darker  races  under  her  dominion.  However,  such  equality 
offered  by  France  was  not  equal  in  the  sum  total  of  advan- 
tage to  the  partial  equality  which  the  Negro  received  in 


516  THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAE 

America.  The  French  workman  gave  more  hours  of  toil 
for  less  monetary  reward.  The  Negro  wanted  to  bring  the 
French  principle  of  eQuality  to  apply  in  American  indus- 
try. But  the  British  in  1914  could  not  agree  to  industrial 
equahty  for  black  men.  Such  agreement  would  upset  the 
mcely  calculated  economic  adjustments  of  the  English  sys- 
tem.  America  would  take  no  step  until  forced  to  do  so 

It  was  the  problem  of  the  Negro,  alone  and  single- 
handed  to  grasp  the  opportunity  afforded  by  world  war  to 
IZ&tf'V^^  S  ^^'  ^^^^  ^^  recognition  and  democratic 
Z.    ^>.?'  ^eg^o   hitherto  regarded  as  the  monkey- 

Zr'.t  A   J  'T'  *^'  ^^^'^  ^™*"'  ^''^^'^  by  «™5^  ruthless 
propaganda  to  disrespect  himself,  hesitated 

mob     Nn'.vl  """  ^'^^f'^lT^-    No  ringleader  arrayed  the 
mob    No  chief  appeared.   No  captain  called  the  hosts.   No 

fouSfent?'  r"^^,^"^l*^«  b^-^^  Pl- W  No  statesman 
But  7b.^  ^""^  "?.  *^'  ^^^^"«  «^  *^^  ^^gro  labyrinth. 
?onsl  'S''  P^^P^^^^  f«r  ^  test  of  Negro  fitnes^i  lilce 
dear  ^vP^f.  ^T"^C  T:^^  ^^^^  ^^gro  possessed  the 
It. Tw  Tl  ?'  ''*"^*^^^-  ^""^^Se  trained,  his  vision 
was  not  blmded  by  proximity  to  issues  of  the  Civil  War 
nor  by  financial  dependence,  nor  by  excessive  spirituality.' 
iwpl  r  ff^'J^^''''^  tlie  oratorical  and  linguistic 
powers  to  state  the  case.    Also  college  trained,  of  lo^g  ex- 

LT™\if '''''''™^,  *  widespread  oratorical  clientele,  he 

vir^^    I      ^'^'™^-    ^"^"^  ^^«  ^"'^Ji  a  proposition  ad- 

Benn  W     '^  "^t^'  '}^  ""'^  ^^"^^'  <^^^P^«^^  ^^^  rejected, 
penniless  and  without  credit,  without  acclaimed  leadership 

or  champion,  sought  position  of  honor  and  recognition  and 

equality  beside  the  best  fighting  forces  of  the  world  to  help 

invented      greatest  military  machine  that  hell  had  ever 

Capital  and  labor,  in  previous  years,  had  found  the 
^egro  wanting.     State  governments  had  utilized  him  for 


THE  NEGBO  m  THE  WOELD  WAR  517 

the  purpose  of  increasing  taxes  and  court  fees.  Tlie  na- 
tional government  always  handled  Mm  in  accordance  with 
-oolitical  expediency,  despite  his  unswerving  loyalty.  Capi- 
tal, labor.  State  government  and  national  government  had 
brought  the  Negro  so  low  that  he  was  ready  in  1914  for  any 

form  of  relief. 

The  Negro  was  ready  for  change,  for  one  reason,  be- 
cause he  had  lost  the  honor  of  ministership  to  Haiti,  Henry 
W.  Furniss  being  succeeded  by  a  white  man.  He  was  ready 
for  change  because,  as  the  continental  war  proceeded,  it 
became  evident  that  though  America  might  participate,  her 
black  colonel,  Charles  Denton  Young,  a  graduate  of  West 
Point,  and  a  distinguished  soldier,  might  receive  recogni- 
tion as  the  leader  of  black  forces  on  foreign  soil.  He  was 
ready  for  change  because  it  appeared  that  there  had  been 
agreement  that  no  American  Negro  should  participate  in  a 
test  of  world  equality  upon  the  field  of  world  honor  and 
renown. 

In  the  American  Navy  Department,  in  1914,  time  had 
destroyed  the  wake  of  Negro  tradition,  and  the  log  had  been 
deleted.  The  Negro  has  rendered  honorable  service  in  the 
navy.  He  was  with  Perry  on  Lake  Erie.  During  the  Civil 
War,  Eobert  Smalls,  a  Negro,  single-handed,  stole  the 
Union  cruiser  '^Planter"  from  Charleston  harbor  and 
brought  her  into  a  Union  port.  Half  the  men  who  accom- 
panied Hobson  into  Santiago  harbor  were  Negroes.  Matt 
Henson  was  the  only  man  with  Peary  at  the  Pole.  John 
Jordan  fired  the  first  shot  from  Dewey's  flagship  '^Olym- 
pia,"  opening  the  battle  of  Manila.  The  Negro  wanted 
change  because  in  1914  the  naval  administration  reluc- 
tantly offered  Negroes  positions  as  messmen  and  cooks.  No 
seamen,  no  members  of  the  merchant  marine,  no  petty 
officers,  no  lieutenants,  might  apply. 

In  the  American  Treasury  Department,  an  ex-Senator 
of  the  United  States,  a  colored  man,  Blanche  K.  Bruce  of 


518  THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAE 

Mississippi,  was  honored  by  liaving  created  for  Mm  the 
office  of  register  of  the  treasury.  Subsequently  the  honor 
was  conferred  as  a  political  favor  upon  Judson  W  Lyons 
of  Georgia;  William  T.  Vernon,  of  Kansas,  and  J.  C.  Na- 
pier, of  Tennessee.  The  democratic  executive  was  good 
enough  to  offer  this  position,  created  as  a  direct  result  of 
the  Negro's  activities  during  and  after  the  Civil  War,  to 
Adam  E.  Patterson,  of  Oklahoma.  But  so  great  was  the 
pressure  from  opposing  political  forces  that  the  name  was 
withdrawn  and  another  position  of  honor  lost  to  the  race 

^""iSo^"*^^^^""'  ^''^^''''  "^  *^^  ^*^'  resigned  his  position 
miyii.  A  white  man  was  appointed  in  his  place.  Screens 
were  erected  in  this  department,  shutting  the  Negro  from 
the  view  of  his  erstwhile  fellow-clerk.  He  was  sent  down 
in  the  cellar  to  emphasize  his  degradation  as  he  attended 
to  his  physical  wants.  The  Negro  cried  aloud  for  change, 
and  m  his  heart  he  cared  not  how  soon  this  change  should 
come,  nor  what  form  it  should  take. 

The  American  Post-office  Department,  by  1914,  had 
taken  over  the  bulk  of  the  express  service  of  the  United 
States.  The  Negro  was  found  available  as  a  clerk,  but  sel- 
dom, if  ever,  as  a  foreman.  The  appointment  of  large  num- 
bers of  Negroes  to  mere  clerical  positions  did  not  mean  to 
the  Negro  recognition  of  merit.  The  Negro  postmaster  had 
disappeared. 

The  American  Department  of  the  Interior  is  engaged 
with  domestic  affairs  of  the  nation.  The  Negro  constitutes 
one-tenth  of  the  population  and  requires  one-tenth  of  the 
necessities  of  American  life.  In  1914,  a  definite  attempt 
was  made  in  a  bureau  of  this  department  to  give  the  Negro 
recognition,  honor  and  near-equality  by  the  policy  of  segre- 
gating him  into  a  Negro  bureau.  This  policy  had  previ- 
ously been  worked  out  in  Negro  school  systems  and  in  the 
army.  But  the  Negro  clerks  of  the  Interior  Department, 
by  unanimous  vote,  rejected  the  proposition  for  this  sort 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAE      ^19 

of  change.  The  kind  of  recognition,  the  kind  of  honor  and 
the  kind  of  equality  which  they  desired  had  taken  definite 
shape  in  their  minds. 

The  American  Agricultural  Department,  it  would  ap- 
pear, should  be  made  up  of  a  large  percentage  of  Negroes. 
The  Negro  was  essentially  an  agriculturist  before  he  came 
to  America.  He  was  brought  to  Virginia  for  the  specific 
purpose  of  engaging  in  agriculture.  His  development  o± 
agricultural  conferences  in  the  South  in  recent  years  has 
been  a  great  source  of  production.  The  Negro  wanted 
change  because  this  department  employed  messengers  and 
clerks,  but  demonstrators  seldom,  if  ever,  of  his  color. 
Agricultural  strategy  in  1914  might  well  have  been  exon- 
erated if  it  had  employed  Negro  chief  demonstrators  and 
engaged  them  in  interstate  contest  for  quantity  production. 
In  one  Southern  State  the  Negro  operates  the  greater  agri- 
cultural area.  In  another  he  wHl  operate  the  greater  por- 
tion of  such  districts  at  an  early  date.  In  still  another 
many  of  the  communities  of  large  Negro  population  have 
hardly  had  a  white  foot  set  upon  them  in  two  decades.  The 
Negroes  of  these  three  states  could  have  furnished  surplus 
food  for  any  nation  of  the  allies,  but  a  Negro  might  receive 
honor  if  put  in  charge  of  their  development  at  the  proper 
salary  and  with  full  authority  to  act.    In  1914,  this  honor 

must  not  be. 

In  the  American  Department  of  Commerce  the  mas- 
ters of  barter  and  exchange  are  exhibited.  America  seeks 
to  develop  the  man  who  can  strike  a  bargain  and  outbid  his 
competitors.  The  Negro  wanted  change  because,  since  the 
invention  of  salesmanship  he  has  been  declared  out  of  the 
scope  of  this  department.  His  social  status  prevents  him 
from  making  the  proper  sales  approach.  The  Negro  of 
1914  came  to  this  department  only  as  a  depositor  of  funds, 
or  as  a  beggar  for  charity.    He  was  not  seriously  regarded. 

Lastly,  in  the  American  Department  of  Labor,  the 


520  THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAE 

Negro  wanted  change  because  he  was  regarded  in  1914  as 
the  man  requiring  a  boss  of  another  color.  He  was  not  re- 
garded as  a  master  mechanic,  manufacturer,  artist  or  iour- 
neyman,  unless  the  labor  union,  to  which  he  was  ineligible- 
so  regarded  him.  *       ' 

In  these  many  ways,  by  capital  and  labor,  by  state  and 
""f'^^fso^^^mnent,  in  every  department,  had  the  Negro 
o±  1914  been  reduced  to  the  state  of  man  without  honor  in 
his  own  country.  If  war  be  change,  however  explosive  in 
form,  m  1914  the  Negro  wanted  the  world  war  to  come  to 
America  from  whatever  angle  that  promised  him  the  great- 
est advantage.  * 

Equality  in  citizenship,  for  which  the  Negro  yearned 
meant  parity  of  a,djustment  to  conditions  of  life.    Equalitv 

and  political.  As  the  terms  are  understood  in  America,  the 
Negro  was  unanimous  in  1914  in  desiring  industrial,  busi- 
ness and  pohtical  equality.  He  eagerly  watched  the  fuse 
of  war  If  perchance  he  might  foresee  from  the  consequent 
explosion  the  termination  of  Anglo-Saxon  prejudice.  It  is 
but  fair  to  say  that  he  was  not  the  only  victim  of  discrimi- 
nation at  that  time.  The  sub-dominant  nations,  including 
the  Jugo-Slavs,  the  Czecho-Slavs,  the  Serbs  and  the  Serfs 
or  Kussia,  were  subject  to  discrimination  and  deprived  of 
the  higher  places  of  honor  in  the  world's  society. 

But  the  Negro  was  not  immediatelv  concerned  with 
any  one's  status  save  his  own.  He  was  not  concerned  that 
Mexicans  Chinese,  Japanese,  Filipinos,  Porto  Eicans  or 
bouth  Africans  did  not  enjoy  the  advantage  of  living  on 
American  soil.  He  was  only  concerned  with  the  fact  that, 
livmg  in  America,  performing  the  full  duties  of  American 
citizenship,  he  was  denied  the  advantages  and  privileges  of 
IS  possession,  while  Slavs  and  Serbs  of  Europe,  with  white 
skins,  were  accorded  the  fullest  measure  of  democratic 
opportunity  whenever  and  wherever  they  set  foot  on  Amer- 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR  521 

ican  soil.    The  Negro  wanted  the  world  war  to  prove  that 
he,  too,  was  a  coalescent  element  in  the  civilization  of  the 

world.  .    ,_. 

To  summarize  the  burden  of  the  Negro  m  1914  we  may 
include  Caucasian  arrogance,  hatred  and  prejudice  of  race, 
injustice  of  attitude  and  treatment,  personal  fear  for  lite 
and  property,  improperly  requited  toil,  unrewarded  ambi- 
tion, unmerited  disfavor  and  debased  self-respect.  What 
profound  pathos  in  the  love  which  he  bore  Old  Glory! 

THE  WAR  FOR  DEMOCRATIZATION. 

Germany  of  1914  aimed  to  throw  ofe  the  yoke  which 
she  claimed  England  wished  to  fasten  on  her  world  rela- 
tionships.   She  aimed  to  dominate  the  world  with  German 
efficiency.    She  aimed  to  demonstrate  German  superiority 
and  expose  what  she  called  Anglo-Saxon  hypocrisy  and 
cant.     Already  possessing  the  world's  supply  of  potash, 
she  struck  directly  at  the  coal  and  iron  region  of  Belgium 
and  Northern  France.  And  she  took  them  on  the  initial  ad- 
vance.   "With  potash,  coal  and  iron,  this  was  a  Teutonic 
coup  for  industrial  and  commercial  supremacy  indeed. 
Now  well  might  she  dictate  who  should  boycott  Enghsh 
goods.  Now  well  might  she  point  to  the  political  and  military 
dishonor  of  the  easy  defeat  of  Belgium  and  France.  Now 
well  might  she  proceed  to  the  disintegration  of  these  coun- 
tries by  the  weapons  of  poverty,  disease,  hunger  and  bitter 
cold.   Little  did  Germany  dream  what  moral  advantage  sne 
gave  these  overrun  lands  in  the  hearts  of  the  millions  of 
Negroes  of  the  world.  Germany  felt  assured  that  Negroes 
from  all  Africa  would  gloat  over  the  assassination  of  Bel- 
gium.   She  was  positive  that  American  Negroes  would  re- 
joice.   She  expected  the  blacks  of  the  world  would  rise  up 
and  hail  her  as  the  champion  of  a  new  day.  ^  . 

In  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  she  reduced  ^e^^^f  ^^^'J'. 
dustrial  serfdom.    She  made  the  Belgian  merchant  a  busi 


522  THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAR 

ness  pariali.  She  reduced  the  Belgian  citizen  to  a  political 
Helot  and  imprisoned  the  burgomaster  of  Brussels,  who 
refused  to  yield  his  citizenship  honors.  She  made  of  Bel- 
gium, a  desert.  The  Belgian  woman  she  whistled  at  and 
made  a  bye-word  and  reproach.    And  she  called  her  treaty 

aL  rH  ^•^."*"^l^*y  ^  r"'  '"^"^P  ^^  P^P'^^-    N^mi^r  fell, 
and  Charleroi  and  lovely  Louvain.    Liege  succumbed  in 
those  hot  August  days,  and  Malines  and  Tournai  and  Ant" 
werp.   Poor  Belgian  refugees,  starved  and  nakS  fled  wes  . 
ward.    In  remembrance  of  barbarities  in  the  Congo  under 
troVlrA  ""''  connnission  which  placed  Belgiu5  in  con- 
trol, the  American  Negro  quoted  the  poet:   ''The  sins  we 
borrow  two  by  two  we  pay  for  one  by  one."   But  there  was 
no  disposition  to  gloat.    The  American  Negro,  be  it  said, 
came  to  the  Belgian  relief  with  money  and  goods  and  pray- 
ers and  tears,  and  forgot  the  sins  of  the  fathers  of  the  suf- 
fering httle  kingdom.     The  secret  of  this  reaction  is  re- 
vealed m  the  sympathy  which  the  Negro  bore  toward  an- 
other people  reduced  to  his  American  status,  without  honor 
recognition  or  equality. 

u  T  ^^*'"'  P^^<^ipitate,  headlong  came  Germany  with  dia- 
bolic efficiency,  thrusting  viciously  at  the  heart  of  France. 
Running  amuck  through  St.  Quentin  and  Arras,  Soissons 
te  1  and  Laon     Rheims  surrounded,  astride  the  Mame, 
i^iance  awaited  her  invader.    Joffre  at  the  gate!  Foch  in 
charge   of  the   defence!    On   came   the  Germans!    They 
crushed  his  eft!  They  pulverized  his  right !  He  dispatched 
S!i?    .?''^       headquarters  with  the  famous  message:  -I 
Thell  f  w '*^  ""L''"*""'-    ^^"'^  "P  *^«  Moroccans!" 
BrSthf   1    ''Ti*^''*''"''  ^"  ^*  *^«  fi^«*  Ma™e,  with  the 
stream     O    7  ^■^^'  T^'^  ^^'  ^^™^"  "S^*  «^er  the 
^urcq  and  the  Germans  evacuate!  Upper  Alsace     Before 

?dTth        r**"^"'*'  *'^  Britishladil/pressing  be! 
side  them.  General  Von  Stein  admitted  his  defeat  by  the 


THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAE 


523 


White  and  black  allies.  Paris  was  saved  and  Poch  discov- 
ered to  the  aUied  world.  How  the  hearts  of  Wa^k  Ameri- 
cans thrilled  as  slowly  the  news  filtered  through  to  them  «f 
what  the  black  colonials  had  done  to  hold  the  field  foi 
Prance '  It  was  then  that  they  took  it  into  their  hearts  that 
if  the  United  States  were  ever  called  npon  to  participate  m 
this  struggle,  they  would  not  be  denied  a  place  of  glory 
equal  to  that  whicb  their  African  brethi-en  had  achieved.  _ 

But  there  was  no  time  for  resolve.    The  cataclysm  in- 
volved in  the  threatened  overthrow  of  English  law  and  or- 
reSrprocedure  throughout  the  world  caused  the  A^encan 
Negro  to  tremble.    Always  conservative  if  t^ere  be  any- 
thing to  conserve,  the  Negro  appreciated  that  Eng  isb  law 
when  properly  interpreted,  meant  freedom  and  life  and 
hope  eternal  to  him.   He  was  unwilling  to  take  any  chances 
S  f  German  substitute.    The  overthrow  of  En^ishlaw^ 
he  looked  upon  as  the  impending  crack  of  doom    On  came 
the  Germans  toward  Calais  and  the  Straits  of  Dover !  On 
toZeebrugge!  OntoOstend!  To  Ypres!  In  her  supreme 
desperation,  England  looked  about  the  world  for  a  force  to 
stay  the  invader  until  she  could  prepare  to  meet  the  full 
force  of  the  attack.    She  cared  not  whether  aid  be  white  or 
black,  or  brown  or  yellow.    She  called  for  help,  or  else 
Ypres  should  fall.  Black  men  of  Africa,  brown  men  of  In- 
dia, white  and  red  men  of  Canada,  and  yellow  men  of  the 
Far  East  heard  her  call.    And  while  America  lifted  not  a 
finger,  the  American  Negro  lifted  up  his  heart  to  God  and 
prayed  that  Anglo-Saxon  justice,  rigid  and  cold  so  otten 
denied  him,  should  not  perish  in  triumph  of  the  Hun,  who 
knew  no  law  save  his  own  lust  and  super-arrogation. 

Aboard  the  "Lusitania"  there  were  no  known  men  ot 
color  But  there  were  Caucasian  women  and  children 
aboard.  At  what  moral  disadvantage  did  Germany  put  her- 
self with  the  black  millions  of  America  when  she  riotously 
celebrated  the  horrible  death  he]-  submarines  had  meted  out 


29— A.  J. 


524  THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAK 

to  these  weak  and  helpless  mortals.  The  "Belgian  Prince  " 
first  of  the  vessels  torpedoed  without  warnin|  after  Presi- 
dent Wilson's  mamfesto  on  the  subject,  had  one  lone  bkl 
sur^vor  to  tell  the  tale  of  horror.  He  told  it  to  his  back 
brethren  and  they  chafed  under  the  diplomatic  restraS 
which  relieved  itself  by  polite  letter  writ^g  ^"'*' 

M...         T^*^-!-^*  mf  •^  *^'  ^^"^^^  <^^^^1  ^y  disruptionin 
Mexico  and  Haiti.    The  Mole  St.  Nicholas  gave  coLiand 

It  reZ  r^''^'  "^  *^'  ^"^^*  P«^^^«  ^^«  "^igW  seize 
It.    German  influence  was  at  work  in  Port  au  Prince.  There 

TjSt;d  l^%  ^^^'^•^^"*  «^  Haiti  was  assassinated.  The 
ir  If  1''  "larines  stepped  in  and  took  over  the  situa- 
tion._  The  American  Negro  heart  went  out  to  little  Haiti, 
ilopmg  for  the  best,  he  feared  the  worst 

In  the  midst  of  this  situation,  Pancho  Villa  attacked 
Columbus,  New  Mexico.  Overnight  Negro  regiments  of 
1  egular  army  and  of  national  guard  received  word  to  go  to 
the  border.  Black  troopers  of  the  10th  Cavalry  wer!  re- 
ported near  Casas  Grandes  on  March  17.  The  24th  Infan- 
try, colored,  set  out  for  Mexico,  and  another  Negro  com- 
niand  was  sent  to  Oolmnbus  on  March  22.    Through  sto™ 

led  by  Colonel  Brown,  came  to  Aguascalientes.    They  had 

C  ^r^\.^  '''''^''  ^^^^-'^^  t^-t  must  W 
ZT^t  f  ^T  *  °''  ""^^  '■'^"'"  *«  ^^«^P*  ^^^«^t-  Hunger 

S«?r  /if  f  t"'^'"  ^'^'^  "^^^"^^  ™"«*  ^"  ^e  overcome. 
Because  of  hardships  many  cavalrymen  deserted  on  May  1, 
after  three  months'  service  in  action.  But  evevy  Ne^ro 
trooper  with  Colonel  Brown  held  on  and  defeated  the  VH- 
listas  m  every  skii-mish. 

«r.r.  ^"  t  ^fr^^i™^'  ^^^^'  ^  ^^•^'^P  fro^  tlie  10th  Cavalry 
approached  the  Mexican  town  of  Carrizal.  They  were  for 

tl  Bo^*""  ^;r  '"■  P^^-P^^^^  «*^  refreshiert    4 
tam  Boyd  resolved  to  make  the  entry  regardless  of  ^ny 


525 
THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR 

relations  the  Mexicans  might  seek  to  enforce.    He  was 
STn^on  bv  General  Gomez  to  advance  for  a  parley.   A& 
w  ^dvTced  wSh  his  troopers,  Mexicans  spread  out  xn  a 
tlc^^Ltonndthem.^G^^^^^^ 
ohine  eun  winch  opened  tire,    ine  yan^y  ^  -. 

eleven  soldiers  were  killed,   ine  rebt  u  ^.^        and 

Chihuahua,  but  were  ideased  ^^f'g^Xrey  xepoited 
bv  the  American  goTei-nment.    Captam  •V'"',.  /  ^u 
tL  his  men  faced  death  with  a  song  on  fte..  hp.^  Ti 
lesson  which  the  Me=:icans  I'"™"'' '"3  no  trouble 
r  -  *^:SSsTe:tt^:?tJn:urrn  republic. 
t,  S:^  See  r  ^d  m  *e  sco^Mu,  -»o.  - 

r.illCtrwls".otretl^-»-^^ 
Who  had  furnished  Mexico  the  means  and  the  will  to  create 
disturbance  on  this  side  of  ^^'^f^^^^,^^^,,  Wilson  pro- 

UnS  States  of  America  and  thp  Imperial  German  Gov- 
«t     At  the  call  for  volunteers,  Negro  regiments  of 
™d    who  had  served  in  Mexico,  were  found  at  war 
Sen  Jth  and  ready  to  double  themselves  overnight.    These 
luard  regits  represented  the  cosmopolitan  Negro  popu- 
lous of  New  York,  Chicago,  Washington,  Baltimore  and 
tt  State  of  Ohio.  E^erywhU  the  Negro  dropped  the  mat- 
ok  left  the  ploughsha^  poised  himself  at  erect  stai^re, 
passionately  saluted  Old  Glory,  answered  "Here  am^!^- 
counted  fours,  and  away!     Pro-German  criea:      White 
man's  war!"    Propagandist   yelled:   " Cannon   fodder ! 
Reactionary  declared:  -It  must  not  be."    The  Negro  burst 


526  THE  mGBO  m  THE  WOELD  WAR 

the  gate  and  entered  the  arena  of  combat  in  spite  of  all  op- 

Tj^tfJ''.  ^''  '^'■'^'^  '"^  lionorable   capacity  under  the 
United  btates  government. 

The  honesty  of  his  purpose  was  discredited.  The 
Anglo-Saxon  mind  could  not  conceive  any  more  than  could 
the  German  why  a  man  downtrodden  as  the  Negro  should 
rush  to  arms,  save  as  a  baser  means  of  eking  out  a  liveli- 
hood better  than  his  civilian  state.  The  Anglo-Saxon  little 
dreamed  that  the  Negro  approached  the  war  not  only  to 
uphold  his  cherished  tradition,  but  also  with  definite  ideas 
o±  honor,  recognition  and  equality  as  its  outcome.  Or  rather 
the  Anglo-Saxon  was  too  busy  with  his  own  affairs  to  ascer- 
tain the  reason  why. 

_  His  loyalty  impugned  by  those  who  did  not  wish  to  see 
him  uniformed,  his  fidelity  the  subject  of  bitter  sarcasm, 
his  trustworthiness  disputed,  the  Negro  for  once  kept  his 
own  counsel  German  agents  were  in  his  midst.  They 
came  to  his  table.  They  mingled  with  him  in  all  social  in- 
tercourse.   They  brought  forward  business  propositions  to 

Southerners,  notmg  this  unaccustomed  intimacy  of  black 
and  white^  announced  that  the  Negro  had  gone  over  to  the 
enemy  But  the  Negro  kept  his  own  counsel.  He  called 
upon  the  nation  to  investigate  him.  And  when  his  loyaltv 
was  found  untarnished,  he  called  upon  the  nation  to  investi- 
gate Itself.  It  was  through  the  influence  of  Robert  R  Mo- 
ton  of  Tuskegee,  that,  after  careful  investigation,  Presi- 
dent Wilson  put  the  stain  of  pro-Germanism  where  t  prop- 
erly belonged.  Said  the  President:  ere  it  prop- 
Mr  Fellow-Counteymen: 

which  ifliliu  ^'V*^  of  addressing  you  upon  a  subject 
which  so  vitally  affects  the  honour  of  the  nation  and  the 

vo7.S??l.f  t  ''''^  "^  ^ry.  ^^  ''"^  institutions  that  I  trust 
you  will  think  me  justified  in  speaking  very  plainly  about 


THE  NEGBO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAE  527 

T  ^^^»Aa  in  thP  mob  spirit  wMch  has  recently  here  and 

rS  "SS'/eSutSf  wSch  =0  man  or  act  of  men  can 

democracy  to  the  acceptance  ot  «tli«  P«»J™;  protection 

SaS  cSto^penT/aerma^y,  except  in  times  of 

'"^f  fct«  '^Z;\ZSlaylii  solemnly  teg  that  fte 
O^JmOTTof  Si  thf States,  tte  law  offlceiu  of  eTery  com- 


528  THE  NEGKO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR 

fully,— to  make  an  end  of  this  disgraceful  evil.    It  cannot 
live  wnere  tlie  communitj  does  not  countenance  it. 

\^^ye  called  upon  the  nation  to  put  its  great  energy 
into  this  war,  and  it  has  responded— responded  with  a 
spirit  and  a  genius  for  action  that  has  thrilled  the  world.    I 

^^\^^^}  ^P^^  ^^'  "^P^^  ^*^  ^^^  ^^'^  women  everywhere  to 
see  that  its  laws  are  kept  inviolate,  its  fame  untarnished. 
-Let  us  show  our  utter  contempt  for  the  things  that  have 
made  this  war  hideous  among  the  wars  of  history  by  show- 
ing how  those  who  love  liberty  and  right  and  justice  and 
are  willing  to  lay  down  their  lives  for  them  upon  foreign 
helds,  stand  ready  also  to  illustrate  to  all  mankind  their 
loyalty  to  the  things  at  home  which  they  wish  to  see  estab- 
lished everywhere   as   a  blessing  and  protection  to  the 
peoples  who  have  never  known  the  privileges  of  liberty  and 
sell-government.    I  can  never  accept  any  man  as  a  cham- 
pion ot  liberty,  either  for  ourselves  or  for  the  world,  who 
does  not  reverence  and  obey  the  laws  of  our  own  beloved 
land,  whose  laws  we  ourselves  have  made.    He  has  adopted 
the  standard  of  the  enemies  of  his  country,  whom  he  affects 
to  despise. 

'vVooDRow  Wilson". 
The    Negro    braced   himself,  dismissed    the  German 
coldly  from  his  household  and  f orebade  the  pro-German 
enter.    From  afar  off  the  enemy  propagandist  could  resort 
but  to  derision  and  ridicule.    What  an  attempt  at  laughter 
he  made  when  Haiti  entered  the  side  of  the  Allies !   How  he 
pretended  to  be  choking  with  the  ridiculousness  of  the  thing 
when  Liberia  offered  her  services!    He  flouted  the  idea  of 
Negro  expertness  in  handling  weapons  of  modern  warfare. 
He  ridiculed  the  idea  of  Negro  discretion  in  ideas  of  likely 
foreign  origin.    He  questioned  the  potency  of  the  Negro's 
native  talent  to  meet  the  European  situation.    It  was  the 
black  man's  patriotic  fervor,  ardent  in  response  to  the  call 
of  Old  Glory,  zealous  with  passionate  love  of  fireside  and 
homeland,  poignant  with  the  throbbing  and  thrilling  re- 
action of  public-spirited  emotion  toward  France— which 
overcame  all. 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR  529 

The  South  asked  three  questions : 
First — Shall  Negroes  and  whites  of  the  South  both  re- 
main in  America  while  the  North  conducts  the  war  ?  Sec- 
ond— Shall  Negroes  of  the  South  remain  at  home  while  the 
flower  of  southern  chivalry,  drafted  for  service,  is  far  away 
across  the  sea,  annihilated  in  battle  ?  Third — Shall  white 
men  of  the  South  be  left  at  home  while  southern  Negroes 
are  drafted  and  go  abroad  to  do  distinguished  service? 
These  questions  were  resolved  into  the  conclusion  that 
southern  Negroes  and  southern  whites  both  must  be  drafted 
and  sent  against  the  German  foe.  There  was  no  alterna- 
tive. 

It  was  altogther  becoming  and  proper  that  a  man 
whose  race  has  suffered  as  the  American  Negro  suffers  to- 
day, should  point  the  way  to  this  goal  of  recognition,  honor 
and  equality  which  the  Negro  knew  but  as  a  tradition  of 
those  days  following  the  Civil  War  when  Grant  adminis- 
tered the  affairs  of  the  triumphant  party  of  freedom. 

One  of  those  New  Yorkers  of  Hebraic  origin,  whose 
Semitic  qualities  are  of  the  highest  ethical  t}^e,  made  the 
play  for  partial  equality,  for  partial  recognition,  for  par- 
tial honor  for  the  Negro.  Joel  Spingarn  suggested  and 
propagated  the  idea  of  a  military  training  camp  for 
Negroes,  where  they  might  receive  instruction  in  all 
branches  of  military  service,  be  commissioned  up  to  the 
grade  of  captain  and  receive  the  recognition,  honv)r  and 
equality  due  to  such  military  rank  as  they  might  qualify 
for.    In  addressing  Negro  America,  he  said : 

**It  is  of  highest  importance  that  the  educated  colored 
men  of  this  country  should  be  given  opDortunities  for 
leadership.  You  must  cease  to  remain  in  the  background 
in  every  field  of  national  activity,  and  must  come  forward 
to  assume  your  right  places  as  leaders  of  American  life. 
All  of  you  cannot  be  leaders,  but  those  who  have  the  capac- 
ity for  leadership  must  be  given  the  opportunity  to  test 
and  display  it," 


530  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR 

merely  pointed  out  thri.+     ^t?    *^'  Proposition.    Ho 

P«™„s  geieralions  had  brought  Wm  '^         '  °' 

the  Secret;;^  w"  le  ,hS^"^«™'t»%Wl"  To 
"Give  IB  place!"  "S,t  ••  „  fi  ."!,°''  ™«««momonsly: 
not  the  facu  ies  at  pLnf  ^0^^°*  "'^■^' "™ '""« 
bedding  for  the  r„et  wSTyon  t^httS:',  ^  «  ;r° 

floor— on  the  P-rnnn/  7    ^^^^^*a^^  We  wiU  sleep  on  the 
TiTa     1^  o      ^^""^^^^^gi^e  us  a  lift!" 

The  Secrft2l';?wr.'^^^'^^  '"'^'''f  *  ^'  ''^'''y  ^^a<^tions. 
-Liie  ^secretary  ot  War  was  taken  aback.    He  realized  fh^i- 

the  young  Negroes  had  not  approached  him  to  sell  tS 

nd  LS^Sth^'  f?  "  "T^*  '^^  ^^^  P-P-  S"ha'S 
dna  exchange  they  had  come  forward.    Nor  had  thev  ooma 

with  dreanas  of  political  advantage  and  sodal  eckt  Ir 
tT  an^r"  gi~-^%«l«P-tuality.  He  was  not  Ldy 
thanT.  1    <J^«^^««e'i  tlie  audience  with  a  little  more 

than  the  usual  ceremony.    One  of  the  older  Negroes  of  the 

fheTvT  r  "-^^-^^  -«ig^t  I^ad  often  appea^d  beyond 

the  orbi   of  average  intelligence,  ventured  fhis  suggestion- 

He  will  put  it  up  to  Pershing. "  '^"agebiion . 

PersW? .t^'r/"'!^!^^"""'^  *^^*  ^*  ^«"ld  be  left  to 
i-ershing  as  to  how  the  Negro  should  be  disposed  of  It 
would  be  left  to  John  J.  Pershing,  who  in  hisCrfier  days 


THE  NEflEO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAB  =» 

^  ^en  ...tructoHn  a  Negro  coHege  --the  America. 
Missionary  Assooiaton  "  ^^'^'f/^^,  10^  Oa»lry  in 
ta  1892  l«'"»f  » ''"t^S^;:5n^n  the  Dakotas;  wl>0 

Moros ;  and  who  had  heen  m  command  «*  *«  J=»2  ™  ?, 

-iJtiStrnfrhtiUrxs^™^ 

close  contact  with  darker  races.  directly 

To  this  dav  the  Negro  does  not  know  who  w^s  miecay 

To  )j;%3;7^^„°^i2ation  of  the  camp  such  as  Spm- 
responsible  f or  the  organ^^^o  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^ 

New  York  Regiment,  already  m  France  with  other  regi 
ments  of  Negro  troopers  of  the  national  guard,  were 
tool  across  No  Man's  Land  on  a  cold  and  foggy  night  as 
a  lookout,  far  in  advance  of  the  ^l-ping  <3onnnand  of  thou^ 
sands  of  white  and  colored  American  troops.  The  Huu 
planned  their  capture  for  the  P-Tose  of  psycho Wytic 
?eseai^h.  It  was  Roberts  who  detected  their  stealthy  ap- 
proach.   He  called  to  Johnson.    In  the  twinkling  of  an  e^e 

L  two  were  surronnded  by  f^^^l^l^Z^^l  cMm  to 
groes  faced  certain  death,  but  they  ^^^^l.^f  *  f , 'f  ^iJ^ 
honor,  recognition  or  equality,  if  they  did  ^o*  t-^^^'^^ 
them  to  eternity  at  least  one  German  ^^f^^'^^^^ 
.      they  resolved  to  fight  it  out  with  shot  and  gun.    Too  too 
slow'    Around  them  the   Germans   swarmed  like    becb. 
Bayonets  then!    Too,  too  close!    Aye,  butts !  Wounded  and 
wSded,  with  knives,  skulls,  feet,  teeth  and  nails,  prehensik 
toe  and  larkheel,  Henry  Johnson  and  Needham  Roberts 
defeated  ten  times  their  number  of  Germans  and  held  the 
field  of  honor.    This  was  a  great  self-revelation  to  thes 


=S2      THE  NESEO  IN  THE  WOBLD  WjUS 

92nd  Division.  ^  ^'^  ^^'^  soldiery  of  the 

^er^T^ltllZTll'^  -ind  of  the  Negro,  what 
lig  woma  say  as  to  tlie  advisability  of  trainino-  \t« 

were  attacked  by  a  German  raiding  party   estimated  J 

^i*  'tS:  'n°^  ^? '°^""  anlttti^:ir; 

P«Bible     There  is  evidence  that  at  least  one,  and  probably 

Li:£  It  ™'  ^'""'^  «"*■  ^  '"■•^  - 1'-™  t^ 

triJ'"^"*?'?.'^  *'""  '"  *=  '»'"  tl"*  the  colored  sen 

Whether  this  citation  arrived  May  19, 1917  bv  design 

ItelvTll    "*'  •!*•  "'^^'  *'^  P-pose\f 'dS^Jg  eom 
pletely  all  opposition  to  the  idea  of  training  Negroes  to  Ct 
the  Hun     Immediately  thereafter  the  4r Tplrtment 
S^es,  Io*;r  ^  --'  '-  ^^-*^^  negroes  ^TrX^ 


THE  NEGRO  UN  THE  WORLD  WAE  5S:^ 

THE  CRISIS  OF  THK  WORLD. 

Des  Moines  Camp  was  orgam^d  i" ^^ 'S^y'mS 
Negroes  to  the  ir,llitary  PO>rt  "1^;^  ^^L^^  on  the 
must  recogBi»  them,  honor  fliem  ""^  'J2^I^.as  designed 
plane  of  eqnality  dne  their jai*.    ™e  o^P^  s^,. 

J^  de.*p  N;8^«'^ -^pi^i  af  rSTther  camps 
SetsSed^e  hSi^o-d  Jf  the  -O^j'-'^fa^* 

nh:s::?:srr:?^"7rsr^ 

rdTSegr-aSsT|=}       SSS 

.nd  phrased  in  many  --^^^^'^^^^t^  |Xo^^  only 

Vmethodxca  t™^^^^^  Long  Trail," 

"sorS  America  ''  we":  s;ngs  they  sung  of  hope  and  not 
of  sorrow    They  Connoted  the  Negro's  reaction  to  the  cos- 

"^"  OvS  1200  men  took  advantage  of  t^^e --P-^^^f  ^^^^ 
+vm  to  Fort  Des  Moines  for  training.  Theu-s  was  the  17tli 
Tl.tS:^BO.  T.  C,  hut  the  first  of  -tional  propor- 
tion Its  auota  was  drawn  from  every  section  of  tne 
Uni  Statr  The  immediate  ^estin^  ^^^ -^.^^^^^^^ 
for  commission  from  this  camp  would  be  the  training 
colored  draftees  of  African  descent 

Mr.  Baker,  the  Secretary  of  War,  in  late  smruner,  re 
f erring  to  the  Des  Moines  Camp,  said: 

"The  work  at  Des  Moines  is  progressing  remarkably 
wpll  and  the  reports  I  have  from  it  are  very  good.  The 
St  5  the  mS  fine,  and  apparently  this  canip  is  gomg  to 
do  a  great  deal  of  good,  both  to  the  country  and  to  the  men 
involved." 


534  THE  NEOEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAE 

are  always  M.'SK fwS  /S^ltTS  SfTIST 
toiy.    This  is  X  fi,4  ^n^.f  \^trBj  ignorance  o(  his- 

dates  who  survive  are  men  of  markedSlUg^nee  and  abH 

opinions  on  what  he  will  there  learn  ofihTl--^tl^''t'' 
stood  unswervingly  behind  the  coSandS^  oTcer  n'eve?v 
decisionthat  he  has  been  called  upon  to  make  even Xu'h 

oii^  ^Mi  V  ^^^^  ?^"  ^^^e  been  started  out  on  correr^t  mZZ 
and  will  have  no  false  ideas  to  unlearn.''  ^ 

thatSLr^  one  in  America,  black  or  white,  believed 
IjS  sSf  ""'"  '^  ^'  commissioned  in  the  army  of  the 
her  nf^  f  ""  ^.'''''''  P'''^*^<^"«  «^  ^0^0^  not  only  beside 
SVr.,  .  'T^'^",*  '^^  *^^  ^^^*i  «^  ^^t««  ^itJ^  the  flower 
thin/r   •S?^^"^^^'^  ''^*^^*^^  ^^t^^'^^  ««Idiery.   EveTv- 

hoSe'st  lun  Tr/'S  ^"*  '^""^^^  '^'  ^^**^^^«t  dri"  i"  the 
aortest  sun   under  the  most  scorching  orders  the  Ena-lisT. 

language  might  devise.    They  represented  every  seclfonS 


THE  NEOEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAE  539 

.V   TTv,i+P<1  States    Not  once  did  they  break.    The  acid  test 

™^S  S  NTgroJ,  training  for  ^^f^^^^l^ 
dergoing  the  terriBc  process  of  f «<;f  f  *2  S 
ne4s  tnmed  raw  V  army  usage,  East  St.  j-""^  "^j. 
Lth.    Tidings  reached  Des  M«mes  that  the  Illn^^m 

»Z1  thrown  it  into  the  fire  of  a  Hazing  dwelling,  held  the 
S^rrits  rescue  -til  she,  herself ,  was  «n^glun^ 
death,  and  then  allowed  her  to  plunge  into  the  iire  to  rescue 

''"  S  :rth«:rcS;;,tlated  from  the  usual  ^ial 
rfo   T^lv  2  and  3  and  4,  Independence  Day,  was  indeed  a 
SoSr've  a^'adftried  and\re  and  raw,  for  the  y^-g 
T^Pt^roes  in  training.    Why  shonld  men  tram  to  fight  lor  a 
Sry  Sat  Pernfitted  such  barbarons  atrocities  against 
Srace  with  impnnity.    In  savage  Memphis  charred  re- 
ma  ns  of  Negroes  bnrned  at  the  stake  before  a  gala  mob  ol 
SToO,  were  thrown  from  an  automobile  in  tte  Negro  quar- 
terof  that  city!    And  the  Negroes  at  Des  Moines  held  on. 
It  has  not  £  recorded  in  history  that  there  was  here 
proposed  any  hostile  demonstration,  or  that  vengeance  and 
Sless  ret  Jliation  was  planned.    Wise  counsel  prevailed, 
and  the  Negroes  at  Des  Moines  held  on. 


S36  THE  NECEO  IN  THE  WOULD  WAE 

from  .he  V.  a™"  S*i  t"     ItZct  K' 

military  service  dpfiprl  ar^Tr  -v^  ^vexy  orancH  o±  the 

vented,  to  break  thfrlSe^o^f."'"'  ^^  ^?^"^^^^^  i"" 
on.  And  then  word  came  fw  wnTl  J  '!  T"^*^'  ^^^^  ^"^^^ 
™ber,  in  disgust^eTtbe  Ta^  ^^^^^^^  '''^ft'^'  ^ 
them,  althoughl^t  the  last  IS'leat  1\S  '"^^  S 

S  S  Tn^ nSw  aV"'  T^  ^^"^  co'^^Snel 
of  the  eleventh  LTof  St  i  ^^  J*  ""^^  *^^  ^^^^^"ti»  I'O"^ 
received  their  colntfn  r^"^^  T^*^  '^  ^^^^  that  they 
of  the  United  State  S^"^^^^^^^^  ^"'^  *^^  ^^««ident 
later  becan^e  fa^o?,  nl? onlvln  th  Vf  "^"*^  ^  ^-^■ 
Mstory  of  the  civilized  worH^^  "^  *^'^'  ^^*^^^'  ^"*  ^^  the 

rank'^XtXtrg^aSetto"^^*^^^  J"^'  ^^^  ^--  ^^^ 
France  and  EnXd     Th!  f  ""  ""^^  ^'^'  *«  ^^^^  i" 

the  Negro  a  Sral  whi  >  ^^™f  J^*^"^*^^^  Proudly  made 
was  comLttfd  t?thl  ,nl  T'*^iP^°^«tio^;  the  latter 
troops.    InX^i^/iS  iCthfSe^J  ef  r^ 

Sbe  had  ginted  partTaflo     1^  ^'  '"^'"''^  "^  ^«  ^«re. 
e.uaHty/lt  wat  f^lhl  ^^^^S^l^^'  ^^^^^' 

baJrrn-^ftttisnrh''^^^^^^^         ^ 

five  hundred  lotZtfll?^""^  '^^  Wenants,  and 
ganda  had  taken  Lnt^aTsuSLtt^^^^^  ,^^T^"  P^^P-- 
to  this  point  of  moral  ailSfpf^^'^^^^  *^«  ^«g™ 
ing  and  burning  at  the  st?k.  £  i  ''"'  ^''''"'  ^y^^^* 

to  break  his  mofale  or  L. IS  ■  '  •'"P^"^''^  ^^^^'^  ^^ 
beldon.  SevThuXroAw'T"'*^^*'"'^^-  ^"*  ^« 
wooIyofhair,longofhtd:-^r-i£^^^^^ 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAB  537 

tMCer  -Biu..,  flat  ^ee,^^^^^^^^ 

eSted  iX  S  of  every  American  citizen,  xnclndxng 
tS  Negro  officers  themselves,  that  thej  would  ever  see  serv- 

'''  TsTi  to  various  camps,  the  problem  of  recognition 
K   wtlpSers  of  colored  officers  immediately  was  raised, 

occur  In  far  more  cases  was  the  Negro  received  with  full 
merited  honors  of  his  status,  and  in  some  sections  on  the 
Ss  oi  complete  equality.  The  Negro  of  a  Borthem  oca^- 
itv  accustomed  to  all  immunities  and  privileges  of  hib 
hiriperienced  great  difficulty  when  fir^  assigned  ^o 

S  nlwell  enough,  settling  his  ^^^-'f^^^^^^^^^^ 
arose,  had  not  some  evil  gen  us  Prompted  the  coi^ma^d^^, 
officer  of  the  division  in  which  he  was  finally  to  be  assem 
bled  to  issue  Bulletin  35,  which  follows: 

"It  should  be  well  known  to  all  colored  officers  and  meu 
that  n"uSl  purpose  is  -ved  %s-h  acts  as  w^  c^^^^^ 
the  'color  question'  to  be  raised.  It  is  not  a  question  oi 
legal  rights,  but  a  question  of  policy,  and  any  pohcy  that 
teSs  to^bring  about  a  conflict  of  the  races,  with  its  result- 
ing ani^ositifs,  is  prejudicial  to  the  military  interest  of  the 
colored  ra^e  ^^^  ^_^.^^  Commander  has 

repeatedly  nrged  that  all  colored  members  of.  his  command 
3  Tspecia  l|  the  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers, 
SuldSraiJ  from  going  where  their  P-^ence  wiU  b^^^^^ 
sented.  In  spite  of  this  injunction  one  of  the  Sergeants  ot 
the  Medical  Department  has  recently  precipitated  the  pre- 
c5e  toouWe  that  should  be  avoided,  and  then  called  on  he 
Division  Commander  to  take  sides  m  a  row  that  shmild 
never  have  occurred  had  the  Sergeant  placed  the  general 
lood  above  his  personal  pleasure  and  convenience.     The 


538  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR 

S  aTefn^'aSgT^K:^^^^^^^  1?  this  matter,  anTthe 

ffeant  Ui^uVH^^+V^    I  ^^™S-    Nevertheless,  the  Ser- 

mosity.  "^  correct,  that  will  provoke  race  ani- 

the  Sfn'^wrth^air^Jf  ''^'^^'  ^^-^^  *^«  «"«<^^««  of 

it  Just  as  e^yl^:^^^L'S'S'r:t^''  '^^  '^^^ 

vision  ""^""^  **"  ""^^  organizations  of  the  92nd  Di- 

"By  command  of  Major-General  Ballon : 

,(T--     ,        "Allen  J.  Greee, 
Lieutenant-Colonel,  General  Staif, 
"Official:  "Chief  of  Staff. 

"Edw.  J.  Ttjegeon, 

"Captain,  Assistant  Adjutant, 
"Acting  Adjutant." 

It  was  an  altogether  modern  type  of  Negro  that  in- 
tormedthe  commanding  general  quietly,  but  firmly,  that  he 
had  seriously  impaired  his  usefulness  by  the  tone  of  his  bul- 
letin;  that  he  had  proposed  a  principle  which  did  not  bode 
good  for  the  future  of  white  people  of  the  world  when 
seven-tenths  of  the  world's  population  was  of  darker  hue. 
f  '"  ™  5^^mral  Ballou's  credit  that  he  admitted  the  ques- 
tion to  debate,  listened  to  reason,  and  capitulated. 

.mpn^w  ^'''"*^^  ^^V^  '''"*^'™  statesmanship  was  not 
amenable  to  reason.    Despite  the  wishes  of  the  President 


THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAE 

gressional  Record"  articles  describmg        P  ^^^^^^^^ 

arming  and  training  any  ^Jf  J^^^^^^^^^   to  Morocco,  to 

What  measure  of  o^^^f  .^'n  t  c^na,  to  Africa,  loy- 
India,toLatinAmenca  to  Jap^^^^  J^  ^^^1,,,,  ean 

-nt^r  rtleXing  of  191|  when  Oe^an^trn.c 

through  the  Briti^^  f  J-^^^J^;;^^^^^^ 
allies'  "Hurry  upralL  ^^^^^^JJ^^^,  storming  and 
drive  against  the  iiritisn  nu    ,         .    ^     ^   j^^  Fere.    On 
attacking  along  fifty  iniles  from  Cmsd^^^^^^^^  ^^^ 

the  first  day,  16,000  British  P^^T^^^'i^  Dover.    The 

shelling  might  be  "^^f^^^'Z^S^^^^^^       25,000 
eermanpenetrate^  0  the  thirdB^^^^^^^^^  ^.^^^^^^ 

more  prisoners.     Wiiiiain  xiun^  Peronne,  Ham 

Se  drle  from  l^^^^.^rtTnf  waf  materSl  wis  lost, 
and  Chauny  fell.  Vast  f  ;,<^^«^^^^^//^^^^^^^^  Lord  Reading 
including  tanks.  At  the  Lotos  ^^^  ™^;  ^  i^g  the 
gave  voice  to  a  message  ^'^^2'^Z\Tl^evt  fell.  The 
fjnited  States  to  rush  ^f^^^^Jl^J^^  .^estion  of  re- 

re^r^jir^ptS^^^^^^^^  CO Jr  line,  o.ered 

'^'t:^^^'^:^'-^^^^^  rrtf Lt^^'tth 

le  became  the  i^P^^f  ^^.^^Inary  ForcT^ust  be  expedi- 
lost.    The  American  Exped^^^^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^U^ 

r;icStSf  rr^'tht  pr^SarednL  of  her  92nd  Bi- 
^%:t^:ty':ZT On  to  Montdidlen    To  AmiensI 


540  THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR 

ToHazebrouck!    To  Paris!    Montdidier  gone'    "Hi,r.r.v» 

effects  of  an;:SL!irlTuXTj^^^^^^ 

less  of  what  adjustments  their  presence  mSuJ^^f- 
future  world  relationships  P^^^^^^^Q  might  upset  m 

longe'\rgaUai?'^^'Gte  *'%f^^  troopers  could  no 

"I  am  readyfor  the  9^  d  '^!  ^^'''  T"'"  ^^^^^  J^^^- 
submit  th«t +1,7  '     ^^"ounced  Pershing.    "We 

rm^ricaftSu?''''  ^^^^"^«"t  ^o-or,  and  of  Merior 
ij-mencan  status,  warned  some  Americans  "Wa  ^h.u 
test  them,"  was  Poch's  laconic  rPT.lv  'f-R  f !l  We  shall 
men  with  but  35  ounces  of  bS  1  ^  '^  ^''  ^^^'^ 
kind,"  America  warned  agfin"'  '"'"^^^^^^  ''  "-'- 

audacity-men  of  fnrtit,T  */'^'^  ieart-men  of 

unquestiomW     unrSfoS.         ^^  resolution-men  of 

elan-men  oI'm'^SeTsZ  f:^^^.:^:!^  '' 
yellow  men,  brown  men  black  t^I  ,-f  I.  ^^*^  '"^"' 
usmen  who  canhalt^heHunP'       ~'*  "^"**'"^  ^^*'    ^^^^ 

their':r'o'ffiLf  yjoo'?  r *  "^  *^  ^^^'  P-«^  -^er 

srzt-i~^^^^^^^^^ 

agaTs  'longTead  flafr/  "^^^«*  «f --an,  broad  head 

BiumagainftShetrTrlv'^''^  "^"'  '^^"^^  ^^- 
thetic  ffroim  ^"^M    ,  "^^t-    ^t  ^as  this  unprecedented  syn- 

AmericanrXhfd^Ssrsei  Jh  mtt ''  f  ^'^^""^^  '^' 
cerning  beloved  PranrSVi-^i'''^  centuries,  and  con- 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR  541 

self  I"  felt  in  Ms  heart  tliat  all  America  ought  to  forget  her 
S Jiu£.  He  felt  that  if  she  did  not  do  so,  she  was  indeed 
Sly  fit  to  be  characterized  as  narrow-minded  mean- 
Srited,  imberal  and  warped-entirely  nnfit  for  the  posi- 
tion of  leadership  in  democratization  of  the  world. 

So  taken  up  with  this  idea  was  the  entire  Negro  race 
that^  editorial  appearing  in  the ''Crisis,"  the  leading 
Negro  magazine,  from  the  pen  of  the  Negro  scholar,  W.  B. 
B  Dubois: came  as  a  dash  of  cold  water  from  an  upper  mn- 
dow.  This  article  set  the  whole  race  agog.  There  was 
nothing  in  it  about  America's  forgetting  her  prepudices  the 
idea  which  filled  the  Negro  heart  and  soul  and  mmd.  It  was 
entitled  "Close  Ranks!"  and  read  as  follows: 

"This  is  the  crisis  of  the  world.  For  all  the  long  years 
to  come  men  will  point  to  the  year  1918  as  the  feat  Day  ot 
becMon?the  day^whenthe  world  <i-ided  whether  it 
submit  to  military  despotism  and  an  endless  armed  peace— 
if  See  it^uld  be  called-or  whether  they  would  P^t  dowii 
thrmenace  of  German  militarism  and  inaugurate  the 
United  States  of  the  World.  ^,,  ^„+..rp<5t  in 

"We  of  the  colored  race  have  no  ordinary  interest  in 
the  outcome.  That  which  the  German  power  represents  to- 
day "pells  death  to  the  aspirations  of  Negroes  and  aU 
darke^races  for  equality,  freedom  and  democracy  Let  ns 
not  hesitate.  Let  us,  while  this  war  lasts,  * <>^f  t  ou^^^^^ 
grievances  and  close  our  ranks  shoulder  to  shotildei  witn 
our  o^  white  fellow-citizens  and  the  alhed  nations  that 
are  fighting  for  democracy.  We  make  no  ordinary  sacri- 
fice biSwf  make  it  gladly  and  willingly  with  our  eyes 
Sfted  to  Te  hills."  While  many  questioned  his  motive,  all 
accepted  his  advice. 

While  the  grievance  was  not  forgotten,  it  was  not 
allowed  to  jeopardize  the  success  of  the  issue  to  weaken  the 
black  man's  allegiance.  Every  mother's  son  and  father  s 
daughter  remained  loyal  under  stress  and  stram  which 
would  have  caused  the  white  man  to  curse  and  die. 


542  JTHE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR 

THE  FIELD  OF  ACTION, 

Eegiments  of  Negro  stevedores,  earlier  in  the  year,  had 
been  drafted  and  sent  overseas.  These  men  were  dmwn 
from  a  specific  locality,  and  did  not  represent  the  entire 
nation.    They  were  in  command  of  white  officers.    They  had 

Srfca  W  "  f'  ^^"^"^  ''  ^"PP^^'  ^  --i-  whi^h 
t7?ell  ?f  rj^""™'^  f  marvelously  weU  that  it  is  difficult 
to  teU,  if  not  here,  where  her  chief  glory  lies 

MissSi'^r*^'"''^™^.^^^"^^'  ^^d  I^ouisiana,  and 
Mississippi,  Virginia  and  the  Caj-olinas,  nrnnberin^  far 
more  than  the  entire  black  forces  of  the  9rd  Ssion 
pacxed  and  unpacked  the  American  Expeditionary  Fo^  e  S 

IZ'^Tw-r  "**'^^*^*^  '^''  ^«^^  l^^ded  the  aV  Eear 
Admiral  Wilson  and  General  McClure  cited  several  rS- 

and  coSd  ,•  ^^™^",  steamship  -  Vaterland,"  was  unloaded 
and  coaled,  m  competition  with  other  white  and  black  steve- 
dore regmients,  by  Company  A,  301st  Stevedores  you^g 
Amexican  Negroes,  in  fifty-six  hours,  a  world  record.  " 

What  a  cheer  went  up  from  the  black  stevedores  of  the 

Sblack     f  ?  ''''''  '^"'^^^  ^"  *^^^^ -^^^«t  ^  HiighTy  band 

Inths  halT  ^^'  T!?^  ''''"''  ^*™"g  ^H  i^  aiw  short 
months  had  learned  the  use  of  powder  and  shot,  of  sword 

and  bSeT^Vl^fT*  ""'^  ^^"'^^^-'  ^^  trench  knife 
sawed  ni\-^'^'^  '*''^  "^  blackjack,  smooth  bore  or 
thrm  ifwr  '  r^"  "'■  ^"*«^ati«'  were  all  the  same  to 
ma?"  A  J  r  ^f  ^*  5^Pf i^^««  for  stevedore  and  inf  antiy- 
7wthtlil'  ^*^^^*i«^f  f>rt  leaped  to  his  throat  as  he 

march  ^wt,'"'"'  ^^  *^'  ^^^"^  ^^^^^^^^  maneuver  and 
march  away  the  men  under  their  command. 

!,>.  -^?\^,^^a<^k  stevedore  wondered  why  America  had 
brought  h.m  so  far  under  white  officers  t^o  beS  suchi 
sight.  He  beheld  black  quartermasters,  ranking  and  out- 
ranking captains,  furnishing  their  men  U  pro^visfon  and 


THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAR 


543 


supply.  The  handling  of  purveyance  and  cutlery  on  a  huge 
scale  bv  black  conunissioned  officers  was  a  revelation  to  the 
black  stevedore  of  the  far  South  who  had  never  seen  such  a 
sight  in  all  his  days.  ,  ., 

The  stevedore  beheld  arrive  Negro  signal  men,  momtors 
of  their  troops  and  of  a  million  whites  behind  them  death 
watch  to  the  German  enemy,  destined  to  be  sentinels  and 
patrohnen  of  No  Man's  Land.  He  saw  pass  by  ^ack  Ameri- 
can scouts  and  spies  and  lookouts  and  pioneers  beaded  for 
the  frontiers  of  France  to  gain  an  immortal  halo  ot  glory. 

The  stevedore  found  in  his  midst  elegantly  g/oomed, 
but  speechless  Negroes  whom,  his  friends  whispered  to  him, 
belonged  to  the  United  States  Intelligence  Department. 
They  had  come,  so  the  wide-mouthed  stevedore  was  told,  to 
Pitt  their  35  ounces  of  brain  against  the  Germans  4o 
ounces,  and  to  prove  that  the  Hun  back  brain  is  surplus 
overweight  and  should  be  reduced  to  Negro  proportions. 
They  had  come  to  furnish  General  Pershing  information, 
news,  tidings  and  dispatch,  embassy  and  bulletin   report 
and  rumor.   And  the  stevedore  wondered  if  General  Persh- 
ing would  expect  these  Negro  men  to  report  to  him  mtorma- 
tion  with  precision  and  correctitude. 

It  was  the  Negro  band,  fresh  from  America,  which 
gave  the  stevedore  his  greatest  delight.  Preceding  the 
black  troops  everywhere,  it  produced  a  potpourri  of  full 
and  semi-scores,  melodies  and  plantation  anas,  that  came 
as  a  refreshing  novelty  to  weary  English  hearts  and  to  the 
souls  of  jaded  France.  _ 

.  But  there  were  no  Negro  "big  gun"  men.  The  steve- 
dore wondered  if  the  black  boys  of  the  92nd  Division  would 
have  to  get  into  the  fight  with  Germany,  depending  upon 
the  kind  of  barrage  which  some  of  the  men  whom  he  knew 
in  America  might  lay  down  for  him.  True,  the  Negro  artil- 
leryman had  been  left  behind  in  America.  At  Camp  Taylor 
he  was  spurned  and  rejected.    But  he  refused  to  accept  re- 


544 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAR 


buff.    He  won  his  way  into   the  heart  of  commanding 
officer  and  subaltern,  gained  his  training,  made  a  superior 
record   witnessed  the  outpouring  of  the  entire  white  sol- 
diery of  the  camp  to  present  arms  and  salute  him  as  he 
went  away  to  service,  and  arrived  in  France  in  breathless 
haste  m  time  to  lay  down  a  perfect  barrage  for  his  black 
comrades  as  they  advanced  through  the  terrific  fighting  in 
the  Argonne  and  the  Marbache.    Long  will  stevedore  tradi- 
tion recite  the  story  of  how  these  black  "big  gun  men" 
came  by,  as 

Q+  .^^®  Sr^  stevedore  represented  a  section  of  the  United 
fetates.     That   section  was   thoroughly  well   represented. 
There  was  work  done  better  than  it  ever  had  been  done  be- 
tore.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  92nd  Division  had  been 
drawn  from  every  possible  corner  of  the  United  States 
where  a  quota  might  be  raised.    It  was  the  92nd  Division 
especially,  however  great  might  be  the  deeds  of  local  regi- 
ments of  guard,  that  would  decide  the  great  ultimate  ques- 
tion.   Eegiments  of  Kegro  guard  troops  from  New  York 
Chicago,  Washington,  Baltimore,  and  the  State  of  Ohio 
and  Negro  pioneers  from  the  mountain  regions  of  the  Caro- 
Imas,  might  cover  their  respective  localities  with  the  sur- 
passing glory  of  their  achievements.    And  every  regiment 
of  them  did.    But  the  real  issue  was  wrapped  up  in  the 
great  92nd  Division,  the  Negro  national  army  commanded 
m  large  measure  by  Negro  officers,  which  stepped  into  the 
international  arena  on  that  fateful  day  in  June,  1918. 

They  landed  when  the  German  had  spent  his'  third 
offensive  and  was  at  the  gates  of  Paris.  Almost  the  first 
news  which  they  received  after  they  had  settled  on  foreign 
soil  was  that  Paris,  the  magic  city  which  they  had  come  so 
far  to  see,  was  destined  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Ger- 
man. Albeit  Chateau  Thierry,  the  turning  point  of  the  de- 
cisive struggle  of  1918,  was  only  achieved  when,  for  the 
war,  a  total  of  more  than  a  million  black  men  of  four  conti- 


THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAE  545 

nents  had  been  annihilated,  the  92nd  Division  was  eager 
for  the  fray— was  anxious  to  tread  the  field  of  action  for  the 
sake  of  honor,  and  recognition  and  equality.  It  was  at 
Chateau  Thierry,  on  a  day  soon  after  the  arrival  of  the  92nd 
Division  in  France,  that  Foch,  the  eminent  generalissimo, 
but  then  an  almost  unknown  quantity,  again  gave  voice  to 
laconicism:  ''The  offensive  shall  begin  and  shall  continue. 
Bring  up  the  colonials  1"  America  was  thrown  into  battle 
holding  honored  position  beside  Grouraud's  invincible 
Africanders.  The  Hun  was  halted  in  his  tracks,  thrown 
back  across  the  second  Marne,  and  hunted  like  a  wolf  over 
the  Hindenburg  line  and  into  Ms  native  lair, 

Soissons,  Eheims,  Verdun,  St.  Dizier  and  Chemin  des 
Dames,  all  saw  Negro  troops  of  the  United  States  in  violent 
action.  In  the  Marbache,  at  Belie  Farm,  and  in  the  Bois 
de  Tege  d'Or,  the  Negro  guard  regiments  and  the  Negro 
92nd  Di^dsion  went  over  and  at  the  Hun. 

At  Voivrette  Farm  and  in  the  Bois  de  Frehaut,  other 
troops  of  this  same  division  smote  German  superman  hip 
and  thigh.  In  Voivrette  Woods  and  in  the  Bois  de  Chemi- 
not,  at  Moulon  Brook  and  Seilie  Bridge  and  Epley  the  92nd 
Division  again  victoriously  contested  the  field  of  honor, 
against  the  best  soldiers  Prussia  might  afford.  From  July 
until  November,  their  brothers  of  the  Negro  guard  regi- 
ments, of  Negro  pioneers  and  Negro  casuals  were  within 
earshot  of  the  murderous  rumble  of  contending  artillery. 
By  November  8  every  command  in  the  Negro  American  di- 
vision, including  the  units  of  guard,  had  more  than  once  or 
twice  been  at  the  front  or  over  the  top  and  at  them. 

Ealph  W.  Tyler,  of  Ohio,  a  Negro  on  the  staff  of  Gen- 
eral Pershing,  representing  the  Bureau  of  Public  Informa- 
tion, says  of  Hill  304 : 

^'I  have  learned  that  Hill  304,  which  the  French  so 
valiantly  held,  and  which  suffered  such  a  fierce  bombard- 
ment from  the  Germans  that  there  is  not  a  single  foot  ot  it 


546  THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAR 

but  what  is  plowed  up  by  shells,  and  whose  sides,  even  to- 
day,  are  literally  covered  with  the  corpses  of  French  sol- 
diers who  still  lie  where  they  fell,  was  later  as  valiantly  held 
by  the  colored  soldiers  from  the  United  States,  who  fought 
with  all  the  heroism  and  endurance  the  best  tradition  of  the 
army  had  chronicled.  The  colored  soldiers  who  held  that 
bloody  and  ever  historical  Hill  304  had  the  odds  against 
them,  but  like  Tennyson's  immortal  ^Six  Hundred,'  they 
fought  bravely  and  well,  firm  in  the  belief  ^it  was  not  theirs 
to  reason  why— it  was  theirs  to  do  and  die.'  And  like  the 
patriots  they  were,  they  did  do,  and  this  war's  history  will 
so  record.'* 

The  Prussian,  at  last,  sought  safety  in  flight.  Brit- 
isher, Frenchman,  Italian,  Portuguese,  Canadian,  black 
and  white  American  were  at  his  heels.  Italy  created  a  de- 
bacle in  Austria.  And  then,  wonderful  news  came  through 
of  what  was  happening  in  the  Near  East. 

It  had  been  impossible  for  the  Negroes  of  America  to 
come  to  France  and  preserve  the  nicely  calculated  adjust- 
ments which  England  had  set  up  through  the  years.  The 
East  Indian,  the  Arabian,  the  Egyptian  could  not  but  ob- 
serve, and  observing,  fail  to  understand  why  American 
Negroes  could  be  entrusted  in  command  of  troops,  if  they 
were  not  given  the  same  recognition  and  honor  and  equal- 
ity. Quietly  England  prepared  them  all.  Under  General 
AUenby  and  dark-skinned  ofScers  of  the  East,  the  black 
Caucasians  and  the  brown  Caucasians  and  the  yellow  Cau- 
casians fell  upon  the  Turk,  until,  regardless  of  his  German 
master,  he  cried  aloud  for  terms.  The  horde  of  dark- 
skinned  captors  of  Turkey,  under  the  British  supreme  com- 
mand, threatened  and  attacked  Bulgaria,  who  quickly  suc- 
cumbed. So  came  the  Turkish  armistice,  and  the  Bulga- 
rian armistice  and  the  Austrian  armistice. 

The  Prussian  fled  from  the  field  of  battle.  He  was  not 
swift  enough.  Brought  to  bay,  he  cried  for  mercy.  All  of 
the  Nearro  American  force  was  to  be  hurled  at  him  in  the 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAB  547 

greatest  stronghold  of  the  world,  Metz.    He  pleaded  with 
the  American  President  for  armistice,  and  was  referred  to 
Marshal  Foch.   It  was  the  great  war  hero,  with  the  Hohen- 
zoUern  house  of  cards  tmnbled  about  him,  who  decided  that 
for  three  days,  until  November  11,  fighting  must  continue, 
and  that  in  those  last  hours  the  Germans  must  feel  at  the 
hands  of  all  the  allies  the  severest  punishment  that  could 
be  meted  within  a  limited  time.    Britishers,  Frenchmen, 
men  of  all  allied  nations  sought  the  honor.    The  American 
Negro  could  not  be  denied.    Although  regiments  of  Negro 
guard  and  of  the  92nd  Division  had  but  recently  been  m 
action  for  a  period  of  from  three  to  five  weeks,  they  craved 
the  honor  of  being  out  in  front  at  the  stern  and  bitter  end. 
It  was  practically  the  entire  Negro  fighting  force  of  Amer- 
ica which,  under  its  own  ofBcers,  went  over  the  top  at  day- 
break on  the  final  morning  of  the  great  four  years'  strug- 
gle, side  by  side  with  white  me^  of  various  nationalities, 
who,  like  them,  were  ready  and  most  fit  for  sacrifice  or  serv- 
ice    In  the  last  hours,  when  life  seemed  sweeter  than  all 
creation,  there  thousands  of  black  men  of  all  regiments 
overseas  fell  in  search  of  the  coveted  honor  of  being  near- 
est Berlin  as  the  thunderous  crash  and  din  ceased,  to  roll 
no  more.  Hours  before  the  order  came  for  the  supreme  and 
final  sacrifice,  Negro  signal  men  had  caught  from  the  air 
the  message  which  indicated  what  was  to  be  their  special 
honor.    There  was  not  a  man  to  desert  or  seek  asylum  else- 
where.  All  went  over  the  top  together  I 

At  the  eleventh  hour  of  the  eleventh  day  of  the  elev- 
enth month  of  1918,  the  order  came  to  cease  firing.  The 
92nd  Division  of  Negro  troops  stood  at  Thann  and  before 
Metz,  in  advance  of  the  progress  of  troops  of  aU  America. 
The  ground  which  they  trod  had  not  been  occupied  by  other 
than  German  troops  in  40  years.  It  was  the  field  of  honor, 
and  recognition  and  equality,  and  must  be  theirs  of  neces- 
sity,,   Nature  had  ruthlessly  perfected  this  type  of  black 


548  THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAE 

native-born  American  for  the  high  duties  of  a  soldier.    Thf> 
war  was  over.   Allies  and  Americans  said  to  him : 

"As  brothers  we  moved  together— as  brothers— to  the 
dawn  that  advanced— to  the  stars  that  fled— rendering 
thanks  to  God  m  the  highest,  that  He,  having  hid  His  face 
through  one  long  night  behind  thick  clouds  of  war,  once 
again  ^wiU  ascend  above  us  in  the  vision  of  perpetual 

The  Negro  felt  that,  as  the  ancient  Eomans  were  too 
faithful  to  the  ideal  of  grandeur  in  themselves  not  to  re- 
lent, after  a  generation  or  two,  before  the  grandeur  of  Han- 
nibal, so  he  will  not  ever  be  the  mere  son  of  a  peri. 

The  Negro  knew  that  he  could  do  one  thing  as  well  as 
the  best  of  men— a  greater  thing  than  Milton  or  Marlowe 
or  Charlemagne  ever  did— he  could  die  grandly  the  death. 
Face  forward  on  the  flats  of  Flanders,  in  Picardy  and  Lor- 
raine he  died  grandly,  to  make  the  world  safe  for  democ- 
racy. For  we  of  America  must  remember,  in  all  our  get- 
ting on  and  up  in  the  world,  that,  as  a  psychological 
weapon,  the  bristling  bayonet  was  incomplete  until  a  stal- 
wart, despierate  black  Negro  American  citizen  got  behind 
it  to  fight,  not  for  his  gain,  but  for  the  uplift  of  the  masses 
of  humanity. 

The  war  was  over.  It  was  still  a.  small  voice  within 
that  told  the  Negro  hosts:  "As  this  hath  been  no  white 
man's  war,  neither  shall  it  be  a  white  man's  peace." 

THE  AFTERMATH. 

But  yesterday  the  nation  tried  to  think  of  the  Negro 
as  a  southern  problem,  the  solution  of  which  belonged  to 
statesmanship  of  the  South.  Often  we  have  endeavored  to 
think  of  him  as  a  national  problem,  and  have  tried  to  per- 
suade the  national  government  to  take  in  hand  matters  of 
widespread  national  interest  wherein  he  was  involved.  But 
now  we  must  of  necessity  think  of  the  Negro  as  an  interna- 


THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAR  549 

tioiial  problem,  ramifications  of  which  are  bomid  up  in  the 
roots  of  aspiration  and  kindred  feeling  and  powerful  po- 
tentiality of  Frenchman  and  Britisher,  of  Asiatic  and  Slav, 
and  of  the  great  bodies  of  darker  peoples  of  all  the  world. 

As  the  Negro  becomes  an  international  problem,  no 
single  section  of  a  country  can  be  entrusted  with  the  admin- 
istration of  matters  pertaining  to  him.  Such  administra- 
tion may  be  assigned  by  international  conclave  to  a  particu- 
lar country  as  its  national  problem,  but  the  proper  chan- 
nels of  administration  of  international  policy  will  be  up 
from  sectional  caucus,  through  national  agency  to  the  in- 
ternational parliament,  and  down  from  such  parliament  or 
league,  through  national  agencies  to  the  section  involved. 
And,  furthermore,  sectional  caucus,  unless  it  would  fail  in 
policies  of  its  advocacy,  and  suffer  modification  by  the  Con- 
gress or  parliament  of  its  central  governmental  adminis- 
tration, must  henceforth  regard  the  Negro  not  as  an  aggre- 
gate all  in  a  mass,  but  as  a  synthesis,  composed  of  grada- 
tions from  lowest  to  superior.  This  is  the  new  concept 
which  the  war  of  1918  has  forced  upon  America,  in  spite  of 
the  bias  of  1914. 

Civilization  left  the  parting  of  the  ways  when  Wood- 
row  Wilson's  rallying  cry  for  world  democratization  lead 
America  into  the  war.  It  decided  to  seek  the  path  of  Peace 
not  along  the  lines  of  permitted  autocracy,  but  of  firmly 
and  thoroughly  well  administered  democracy.  In  adminis- 
tering democratic  government,  Negro  regiments,  graded 
from  private  to  superior  officer,  came  first  as  an  academic 
proposition,  and,  finally,  as  an  actuality.  They  came  four 
hundred  thousand  strong.  No  group  of  that  number  can 
longer  be  considered  as  a  mere  accumulation  of  black  men. 
One  hundred  thousand  Negroes  of  the  92nd  Division  and 
regiments  of  guard  have  been  commanded  on  the  field  of 
action  by  black  headmen,  jsvith  white  headlight.  They  have 
taken  their  objectives  with  speed  and  control  and  the  man- 


550  THE  HEGRO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR 

agement  of  both  of  these  elements  of  transfused  morale  has 
been  in  the  hands  of  colored  college  men  or  their  military 
equals. 

The  hour  of  decision  to  make  the  world  safe  for  democ- 
racy was  the  crisis  of  civilization.  Victory  on  the  fields  of 
France  has  been  the  satisfactory  denouement.  The  ques- 
tion naturally  arises :  Shall  there  be  a  happy  ending  of  the 
great  drama  for  the  white  American  and  a  tragic  end- 
ing for  the  Negro?  Or,  rather,  as  the  American  brother- 
hood gathers  about  the  charmed  circle  and  smokes  the  pipe 
of  peace,  shall  the  Kegro  report:  ^'I  see  and  am  satisfied?" 

In  other  words,  shall  the  92nd  Division  of  Negro  fight- 
ers and  the  greater  hosts  of  black  war  workers  overseas,  re- 
turn to  America  with  honor  in  theory,  but  not  pursued  in 
fact  to  its  logical  finality?  Shall  these  black  bulwarks  of 
the  business  of  world  war  find  the  door  of  the  business 
world  of  peace  slammed  in  their  faces?  Shall  these  black 
survivors  of  terrific  struggle  for  world  democracy  return 
home  only  to  be  declared  unfit  to  vote  an  American  ballot? 
Shall  the  black  soldier  hero  be  allowed  to  take  his  croix  de 
guerre  into  a  jim-crow  car?  Shall  the  black  Eed  Cross 
nurse,  rushing  to  the  aid  of  benighted  humanity  regardless 
of  color,  be  refused  accommodation  at  places  of  public  pro- 
prietorship whither  she  may  seek  rest  or  refreshment? 
Tragedy  begets  tragedy.  Seventeen  seventy-six  begot  1861, 
and  1861  begot  1914. 

The  times  demand  decisive  action.  Sociological  error, 
committed  today,  will  cause  malformation  of  an  important 
member  of  the  American  body  politic.  It  will  cause  the 
ship  of  state  to  ride  an  uneven  keel.  This  ship  of  state  must 
be  brought  to  her  ancient  moorings,  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, the  Gettysburg  Address  of  Lincoln,  and  the 
Farewell  of  Old  John  Brown  on  the  scaffold. 

The  tumult  has  died.  Revelry  and  shouting  fill  every 
program.    Is  the  Negro  to  return  unheralded  to  homeland, 


THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WOELD  WAR      ^^^ 

and  with  his  eyes  to  the  hills,  undergo  patting  and  pitying 
and  be  given  a  place  in  the  corner  ?  Or  are  the  colored  boys 
in  khaki  to  announce  their  return  by  a  vigorous  knocking  at 
the  gate?  Shall  they  have  cause  to  cry  to  America:  ''A 
house  divided  against  itself  cannot  stand !"  And  shall  thej 
knock  and  knock  and  knock  until  America  sets  herself  to 
wonder  what  has  this  army  Negro  to  do  that  he  becomes  so 
unceremonious  ?  Or  shall  they  find  the  gate  wide  open  and 
triumphal  arches  erected  in  every  section  of  the  country  in 
their  honor  to  signify  that  defeat  of  Grerman  autocracy 
means  democratization  of  every  section  of  the  entire  world? 
An  international  conscience  demands  for  the  Negro  hero  a 
happy  ending  of  it  all. 

The  Negro  looks  to  the  military  agencies  of  America 
to  produce  a  genuine  peace  wherein  he  may  live  happy  ever 
after.  Regarded  in  America  as  the  most  alien  of  aliens  be- 
fore the  war,  he  demands  recognition  today  as  the  most 
loyal  of  loyalists.  But  yesterday  Anglo-Saxon  prejudice 
persisted  in  viewing  him  as  a  physical  alien,  a  mental  alien, 
a  moral  alien  and  a  social  alien.  The  Negro  is  willing  to 
discuss  no  further  this  prejudicial  conception  of  himself 
forced  home  by  libelous  propaganda  and  by  governmental 
administration  for  hundreds  of  years,  if  the  agencies  of  re- 
construction will  perfect  and  put  in  operation  a  vigorous 
Americanization  policy  in  his  behalf. 

Military  life  has  taught  the  Negro  the  advantage  de- 
rived from  the  use  of  pure  food  and  balanced  ration.  It 
has  taken  him  from  the  ghetto  into  the  pure  air  of  the  open 
country,  and  filled  his  lungs  with  deep  draughts  of  the  free 
breezes  of  France.  It  has  removed  him  from  the  tempta- 
tion to  imbibe  the  beverage  that  destroys  human  faculties 
and  has  accustomed  him  in  a  measure  to  the  beneficial  use 
of  purified  water.  It  has  undertaken  through  carefully 
selected  work,  exercise  and  recreation  to  perfect  the  habits 
of  digestion,  assimilation  and  elimination.    The  result  has 


^52  r].jjj.  NEGRO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR 

been  indeed  marvelous.    No  America  Negro  who  went  to 
fight  for  hmnanity  will  return  to  America  as  the  same 
physical  being.    No  American  will  dare  stand  before  the 
returned  Negro  trooper  and  say:  *^ Behold  a  sub-species  of 
mankind,  wooly  of  hair,  long  of  head,  with  dilated  nostrils, 
thick  lips,  thicker  cranium,  flat  foot,  prehensile  great  toe 
and  larkheel.    Yea,  behold  him,  dark  of  skin,  whose  men- 
tality  is  like  unto  a  child,  and  closely  related  to  the  anthro- 
poid ape ;  whose  weight  of  brain  is  only  comparable  to  that 
of  the  gorilla."    Where  is  the  American  who  will  dare 
stand  before  any  Negro  trooper  returned  from  France  and 
thus  mock  and  deride  him?    Military  agency  has  com- 
pletely destroyed  the  physical  concept  which  the  white 
world  had  of  the  Negro  in  1914,  by  placing  him  in  the  focus 
of  Caucasian  binocular  vision,  wherein  his  better  attributes 
become  visible  in  their  synthetic  relation. 

In  addition,  military  life  has  sharpened  the  mental 
powers  of  the  Negro  in  command  to  meet  the  highest  ex- 
actions of  modern  warfare.  Colonel  Charles  Denton  Young, 
Negro  graduate  of  West  Point,  if  we  may  trust  the  record, 
is  capable  of  the  same  high  character  of  mental  processes  as 
John  J.  Pershing.    Military  test  has  proven  before  the 
world  that  the  Negro  is  no  mental  alien,  but  heir  to  all  the 
ages  of  Anglo-Saxon,  Eoman,  Greek  and  Egyptian  culture. 
In   France   the  American  Negro   has   produced   no 
notorious  offenders  against  civil  or  military  usage.  He  has 
arisen  to  the  moral  concept  of  high  responsibility  for  the 
future  of  his  race  in  the  estimation  of  all  mankind.    There 
is  no  story  of  moral  degeneracy  which  has  yet  come  from 
abroad  concerning  him.     Pitfall,  temptation  and  oppor- 
tunity for  vice  and  crime  have  all  been  shunned  in  light  of 
preparation  for  the  higher  service.    The  Negro  has  proven 
his  power  of  moral  restraint  while  guided  by  leadership  of 
his  own  color.    As  a  social  being  he  has  sacrificed  his  life 
for  the  highest  form  of  social  existence,  democracy.    Who^ 


THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAE      55^ 

then,  is  there  to  call  him  alien!  Today  he  is  no  longer 
Negro  nor  Afro-American,  nor  colored  American,  nor 
American  of  African  descent,  but  he  is  American— simply 
this,  and  nothing  more. 

He  has  been  raised  to  erect  stature  and  made  a  man  by 
the  military  branch  of  the  United  States  Government,  be- 
cause of  signal  service  to  the  American  peoples.  His 
prayer  is  that  this  military  government  long  may  live  as 
such  to  train  the  great  mass  which  he  calls  kin  into  a  syn- 
thetic vphole.  .  . 

As  he  evolved  from  a  student  in  a  military  traimng 
camp  to  military  leadership,  so  he  desires  the  great  military 
organization  of  America  to  continue  to  exist,  that  through 
its  agency  he  may  attend  the  training  camps  which  lead  to 
industrial,  business,  political  and  social  success.  Universal 
military  education  for  me  and  mine  and  all  other  Ameri- 
cans is  his  slogan,  and  his  aim  is  to  recreate  the  America  ot 
the  early  Seventies,  which  became  hardened  and  callous 
through  the  years  by  reason  of  resistance  to  the  German 
menace  of  autocracy,  but  now  removed. 

This  American  has  made  good  m  public.  He  has 
demonstrated  both  efficiency  and  initiative.  He  has  com- 
pelled popular  belief  to  conceive  him  as  a  man.  The  Cau- 
casian world  he  has  caused  to  perceive  that  he  might  func- 
tion as  a  valuable  and  serviceable  element  of  twentieth  cen- 
tury civilization.  Will  the  Anglo-Saxon  issue  to  hmi  the 
warrant  of  immunities  and  privileges  certifying  that  he  is 
four-square  with  the  dominant  opinion  of  mankind,  and, 
therefore,  entitled  to  superior  status  ? 

To  this  dark-skinned  American  are  attributed  all  de- 
ments of  beauty  and  racial  grandeur.  Forever  in  survival 
of  the  world's  most  fit,  he  goes  on,  blending  readily  with 
civilization's  high  ideal,  philosophically  tolerating  abuse 
offered  by  the  less  refined,  effecting  a  racial  consciousness 
of  purity  in  inter-social  relationships,  adapting  himself 


554  THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  WORLD  WAE 

with  symmetry  and  poise  to  the  tasks  of  the  world,  and  bow- 
ing in  humble  respect  before  the  higher  laws  whose  harmo- 
nies order  and  rectify  all  creation. 

What  will  the  black  Eip  Van  Winkle  behold  as  he 
walks  through  the  corridors  of  the  American  Department 
of  State  twenty  years  hence  ?  Will  he  behold  a  great  black 
mass  still  at  the  veriest  bottom  of  our  governmental  organ- 
ization, or  will  he  be  caused  to  marvel  at  the  synthetic 
gradations  of  black  American  from  lowest  to  superior?  As 
he  views  progress  in  all  departments  of  the  government, 
will  he  see  this  real  American  organized  synthetically  in  all 
branches  of  the  service,  or  will  he  behold  him  still  employed 
as  the  boy  or  the  mere  high  private?  Time  and  the  great 
heart  of  America  will  tell. 

The  center  of  gravity  of  world  interest  of  1914  has 
j;hifted  and  come  to  rest  at  a  spot  most  significant  for 
darker  peoples.    Victory  to  all  participants  in  its  glorious 
achievement  must  be  less  disastrous  than  defeat.    In  order 
to  satisfy  the  liberal  opinion  of  the  world,  some  form  of 
autonomy  must  be  devised  for  the  newly  organized  man  in 
America.    Durable  peace  requires  that  American  prejudice 
be  utterly  and  forever  stamped  out;  first  by  the  recon- 
structed   organization    of    the    American    Expeditionary 
Force,  which  beheld  its  organizations  of  every  race  and 
creed  under  fire  and  in  action ;  second,  by  the  American 
people  of  every  locality,  who  have  forced  upon  them  by 
world  war  the  new  concept  of  a  branch  of  the  species  once 
considered  inferior;  and,  third,  by  the  powers  of  the  world, 
who  must  prevent  the  upgrowths  in  America  from  offering 
malignant  germs  of  unrest  to  their  own  systems  of  national 
government. 

After  the  ITegro  has  proved  his  value  and  worth  in  all 
of  these  trying  ways,  when  after  this  he  asks  for  a  full 
measure  of  equal  rights,  what  American  will  have  the  heart 
or  the  hardihood  to  say  him  nay? 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

Achievements  of  the  Negro   in  the  American   Navy-Guardino   the  Teaks- 
TlTntic  Eouie  to  France-Battling  the  Submarine  PebiwThe  Best 

sIlLOUS   IN   ANY  NAVY   IN   THE    WOELD-MAKING   A  NaVY   IN    THEEE   MONTHS 
FROM    NEGRO    STEVEDORES    AND   LABOREES-WONDERFI,!.    ACCOMPLISHMENTS    OF 

Our  Negeo  Yeomen  and  Yeowomen. 

STEANGEE  than  fiction,  the  story  of  the  organization, 
development  and  expansion  of  the  United  States  navy 
from  a  mere  atom,  as  it  were,  to  the  present  time,  when 
her  electrically  propelled  men-of-war,  equipped  with  the 
most  luxurious  compartments  and  modern  mechanism  for 
despatch  and  communication  as  well  as  her  great  merchant 
marine,  floating  the  emblem  of  freedom  and  democracy 
in  every  civilized  port  of  the  world,  is  one  of  the  most 
fascinating  pages  in  the  history  of  human  achievement. 

And,  as  it  were,  the  very  culmination  of  wonder  and 
admiration,  the  chain  of  events  reciting  the  deeds  of  valor 
and  unselfish  devotion  to  duty  upon  the  part  of  her  black 
sons,  constitutes  an  illustrious  record  easily  marking  us 
participants  as  conspicuous  representatives  of  a  people, 
who  have  won  their  tardily  conceded  recognition  m  every 
phase  of  American  public  life. 

The  services  of  the  Negro  in  the  American  navy  very 
properly  begin  with  the  stirring  and  thrilling  events  of 
the  Am'erican  Revolution,  which  terminated  in  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  colonies  and  the  establishment  of  the 
.United  States. 

THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR. 

The  Negro  in  the  navy  was  then  and  has  been  ever 
since  no  less  devoted  to  duty  and  as  fearless  of  death  as 
Crispus  Attucks,  when  he  fell  on  Boston  Commons,  the 
first  martyr  of  American  independence. 

555 


•^56  THE  NEGBO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

•       "^XT  'P'^^^^S  «f  'colored  seamen,  who  showed  great  hero- 
ism, Nathaniel  Shaler,  commander  of  the  privatrarmed 
schooner  GeMeral  Thompson,  said  of  an  engagemen    be 
.     tween  h:s  vessel  and  a  British  frigate:  "The  nfme  of  one 
of  my  poor  fellows,  who  was  killed,  ought  to  be  regTs- 
tered  an  the  book  of  fame,  and  remembered  with  rever- 
ence as  long  as  bravery  is  considered  a  virtue.    He  was 
a  black  man  by  the  name  of  John  Johnson.    A  twenty 
four  pound  shot  struck  him  in  his  hip,  and  took  away  Si 
the  lower  par  tof  his  body.    In  this  state,  the  poor  brave 

shipmates     Fire  away,  my  boy!     No  haul  color  downt' 
Another  black  by  the  name  of  John  Davis  was  wounded 

requested  to  be  thrown  overboard,  saying  he  was  only  in 
the  way  of  others.     When  American  can  boats  of  such 
tars  she  has  little  fear  from  the  tyrants  of  the  ocean  " 
Bntish  gold  and  promises  of  personal  freedom  served 

navy  foi  them,  the  proud  consciousness  of  duty  well  done 
served  as  a  constant  monitor  and  nerved  their  strong  black 
arms  when  thundering  shot  and  shell  menaced  the  future 
of  the  country;  and,  although  African  slavery  was  still  a 

TtSTe^:i:T'''fT  and  constituted  the^basic  fabli: 
ot  the  great  food  productive  industry  of  the  nation,  it  was 
the  Negro's  trusted  devotion  to  duty  which  ever  guild 
h.m  m  the  nation's  darkest  hours  of  peril  and  m'enace 

NEGROES  IN  THE  WAR  OF  1812. 

with^?rpt  T^^-  ^'"'•?'  *^'  ^"^'  *^^  1^12,  a  second  fight 

Lake  Tie  p'  "'f '*"""'•  ^^*^«^  ^^t^  I^^rry  on 
ChaL^  +;  Comniodore  MacDonough,  Lawrence  or 
Chauncey,  the  black  man  played  his  heroic  and  sacrificing 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  557 

role,  struggling  and  dying  that  American  arms  and  yalor, 
the  security  of  American  lives  and  property,  would  suffer 
no  destruction  at  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  The  fine  words 
of  Conmiodore  Chauncey,  commending  their  dauntless  m- 
trepidity  and  unswerving  obedience  and  loyalty  to  the  rig- 
orous demands  of  duty,  should  be  read  and  carefully 
studied  by  all  men,  friendly  to  human  excellence  and 

courage,    ^^j^j^^j^^j^^  CHAUNCEY'S  TRIBUTE. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  Commodore  Perry, 
expressing  dissatisfaction  at  the  troops  sent  him  on  Lake 
Erie-  "I  have  this  moment  received  by  express  the  en- 
closed letter  of  General  Harrison.  If  I  had  officers  and 
men,-and  I  have  no  doubt  that  you  will  send  them,-l 
could  fight  the  enemy  and  proceed  up  the  lake;  but,  hav- 
ing no  one  to  command  the  ilajestic  and  only  one  com- 
missioned officer  and  two  acting  lieutenants,  whatever  my 
wishes  may  be,  getting  out  ie  out  of  the  question  The 
men  that  came  by  Mr.  Champlin  are  a  motley  set,-blacks, 
soldiers,  and  boys.  I  can  not  think  that  you  saw  them 
after  they  were  selected.  I  am,  however,  pleased  to  see 
anything  in  shape  of  a  man." 

The  following  is  the  reply  from  Commodore  Chauncey 
to  Commodore  Perry  in  answer  to  the  above  letter:  "Sir, 
I  have  been  duly  honored  with  your  letters  of  the  23d  and 
26th  ultimo  and  notice  your  anxiety  for  men  and  officers 
I  am  equallv  anxious  to  furnish  you;  and  no  time  shall 
be  lost  in  sending  officers  and  men  to  you  as  soon  as  the 
public  service  will  allow  me  to  send  them  from  this  lake. 
I  regret  that  you  are  not  pleased  with  the  men  sent  you 
by  Messrs.  Champlin  and  Forest;  for,  to  my  knowledge, 
a  part  of  them  are  not  surpassed  by  any  seamen  we  have 
in  the  fleet;  and  I  have  yet  to  learn  that  the  color  of  skm, 


558  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

or  the  cut  and  trimmings  of  the  coat,  can  affect  a  man's 
qualifications  and  usefulness. 

many  of  them  are  among  my  best  men,  and  I  presume 
that  you  will  find  them  as  good  and  useful  as  any  on  boa^d 
your  vessel;  at  least  if  you  can  judge  by  comparison;  for 
those  which  we  have  on  board  this  ship  are  attentive  and 
obedient,  and  as  far  as  I  can  judge,  are  excellent  seamen. 
A  any  rate,  the  men  sent  to  Lake  Erie  have  been  selected 
with  the  view  of  sending  a  proportion  of  petty  officers 
and  seamen  and  I  presume  upon  examination,  it  will  be 
found  that  they  are  equal  to  those  upon  this  lake." 

THE  COLORED  MAN  IN  THE  MEXICAN  WAR. 
In  the  Mexican  War  (1845-1848)  we  find  him,'in  his 
humble  positions  of  service  and  usefulness,  a  positive  fac- 
tor in  the  final  success  and  triumph  of  American  ideals. 

A  '""'fT.  ^'^^'^''''''  ""^  dark  plots  of  poison,  arson 
and  unfaithfulness  characterized  his  conduct,  and,  in  the 
final  and  complete  blockade  of  the  Mexican  ports,  his  con- 
tribution  of  faithful  and  loyal  service  made  eifective  the 
terms  by  which  Generals  Scott  and  Taylor  taught  the  ever- 
observed  lesson  of  American  dominence  upon  the  Western 
Hemisphere  and  thereby  preserved  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

IN  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 
In  the  Civil  War-when  the  violence  of  domestic  strife 
menaced  the  continuance  of  the  National  Union-  when  the 
preservation  of  slavery  constituted  the  subject  of  an-r- 
and  stormy  debate  in  every  section  of  the  country,  it  was 
in_  the  navy,  no  less  than  in  the  army,  that  the  Negro 
evinced  that  dauntless  fidelity  to  duty  which  aided  in  sta- 
bilizing the  discipline  of  the  field  forces,  thereby  effectively 
contributing  to  the  success  not  alone  of  forcing  the  Miss- 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  559 

\sivvi  and  intersecting  the  Confederacy,  but  also  in  her- 
Scaily   sealing   all   Southern  ports   and   reducmg   to 
imperceptible    insignificance    the    possibility    «£    f^^^ 
trade  with  the  South -a  factor  which  made  it  doubly  Miie 
that  Northern  arms  would  ultimately  triumph  and  the 
Union  be  saved.    It  was  a  colored  man,  Eobert  Small  who 
single  handed,   stole  the  Union  cruiser  Panther   from 
Charleston  harbor,  foiled  the  Confederate  fleet,  and  navi- 
gated her  safely  to  a  Union  port.    In  all  the  annals  of 
courage  and  dazzling  gallantry,  this  incident  has  been  re- 
cited- and  it  constitutes  a  commendable  example,  with 
many  others,  however,  of  devotion  to  duty  and  undying 
love  for  freedom.     Mr.  Small  became  a  successful  busi- 
ness man,  and  was  one  of  the  few  Negroes  who  served  m 
the  Congress  of  the  United  States. 

THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  SPANISH  WAR. 
The  Spanish-American  War  (1898-1900)  also  Has  its 
roll  of  honorable  dead  and  surviving  heroes-it  was  a 
Negro  who  fired  the  first  shot  at  Manila  Bay,  from  the 
cruiser  Olympia,  flag  ship  of  the  late  Admiral  Dewey, 
commanding  the  American  forces  on  the  Asiatic  station. 
He  was  John  Christopher  Jordan,  chief  gunner's  mate 
(retired)  U   S.  N.    His  career  is  a  fair  example  ot  the 
Negro's  ability.    He  was  first  enlisted  in  the  United  States 
navy  on  June  17,  1877,  as  an  apprentice  of  the  third  class, 
the  very  lowest  rating  in  which  he  could  have  entered.    He 
advanced,  despite  opposition,  through  the  different  grades 
in  direct  competition  with  his  white  shipmates  to  the  graae 
of  chief  gunner's  mate,  the  highest  rating  that  could  be 
reached  in  the  enlisted  status. 

It  was  not  because  of  his  lac]£  of  desire  for  further 
advancement  that  he  did  not  go  higher,  nor  was  it  due  to 
his  not  being  qualified,  for  it  was  conceded  by  all  officers 


560  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

recommended  by  hi.  superior  oSer  L  Se  T^^'^l 
wa,™„t  gu^er,  „d  the  paper7pled  m  f oH  T  °' 
proval  by  the  eomi„a„der-in-cMel:  of  ta  C  Z  I  '■*" 
sent  (»  tie  secretary  of  the  navT  Th^.  f  "  '"""^ 
the  Negro's  most  fUdablfJi-p^^dt:  "S^ffi" 
c.al  yery  „ncercm„m„„dy  forwarded  thTpape™  to  1 

a  gunner's  mate  of  the  first  class   anri  hi.!, 

PINAL  RECOGNITION 

The  following  letter  was  then  addressed  to  Jordan's 
commanding  officer  by  the  bureau  of  navigation      tL 
Bureau  notes  that  John  G.  Jordan,  gunnels  n'te  fi^t 
class,  has  served  as  such  with  a  creditahlp  I  ™ 
August  6, 1899.    The  chief  of  IreZ'Z^  :^^ZeZ2 

to  Zr"  T  1  *'P'"'°°  ^^°-  *^^  oommandrng  officer  at 
flo^l    I     'f  ""^  P'^'^^'^^  ^'^^^  «"P«"or  intelHgence 

a  el  ef'Ltnffi      '"'/'"i*^'  *^  ^^^^-<J'  "-essary  for 
a  chief  petty  officer  and  particularly  as  to  whether  he  is  in 

mlTT'l  Tf  ^''  '''  ^^«  P-^t--  «f  chief  g^L;? 
mate  of  a  first-class  modern  battleship  "  ^ 

Ihe  reply  to  this  letter  was  to  the  effect  +li«t  T..^ 
was  .n  all  respects  qualified,  and  by  or^r  S^tfe l^^t^ 
of  the  navy,  he  was  advanced  to  the  grade  of  chief  nettv 
officer,  filling  this  position  with  efficien^v  in  T      ^     ^ 
and  with  ovpAit  ^■^\^  emciency  to  the  service 

ana  witfi  credit  to  his  race,  until  December  1,  1916,  at 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  561 

wMch  time  he  was  retired,  after  serving  thirty  years  in 
the  navy  of  the  United  States.  The  following  letter  was 
addressed  to  him  by  the  secretary  of  the  navy  upon  this 

occasion:  i   i  .  „„ 

"The  department  desires  to  congratulate  you  upon 
the  completion  of  thirty  years'  service  in  the  navy._  The 
fact  that  you  started  as  an  apprentice  and  now  retire  as 
a  chief  petty  officer,  your  several  honorable  discharges  and 
good  conduct  medals,  show  that  you  were  a  valuable  man 
m  the  upbuilding  of  the  navy,  and  while  the  department 
is  glad  to  know  that  you  will  now  enjoy  the  benefits  o± 
the  retirement  law,  yet  it  regrets  very  much  to  see  you 
retire  from  active  life  in  the  navy.    The  department  hopes 
that  you  will  always  take  a  lively  interest  in  naval  affairs, 
and  wishes  you  many  years  of  good  health  and  usefulness. 

OTHER  INSTANCES. 

Another  very  interesting  character  of  the  navy  during 
this  period  was  Mr.  C.  D.  Tippett  of  Washington  D.  C, 
who  enlisted  in  the  navy  in  1875,  and  who  served  honor- 
ably and  faithfully,  until  recently,  when  he  was  retired 
for  honorable  service.  Mr.  Tippett  enjoys  the  distmction 
of  having  crossed  the  equator  on  two  different  occasions, 
and  holds  a  certificate  from  Neptune,  a  relic  highly  treas- 
ured by  all  naval  men  fortunate  enough  to  hold  one. 

It  has  been  the  object  of  the  preceding  paragraphs 
to  briefly  recite  some  few  instances  of  the  Negro's  activity 
in  the  American  navy  from  its  beginning  up  to  the  present 
struggle.  Space  and  time  will  not  permit  a  more  detailed 
and  accurate  exposition  of  the  many  other  eases  equally 
as  interesting,  instructive,  and  illustrative  of  the  superb 
discipline  and  devotion  to  duty  of  this  race  whenever  and 
wherever  called  upon  to  serve. 


562  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

THE  NEGRO  SEAMAN  IN  THE  WORLD  WAR 

The  extent  of  the  Neero's  wnrt  •    .u 
record  of  its  briUiant  acSLZ?;;^  i."""  'f  *^^ 
obscure  the  service  rendered  mn    7        '^™^  ^^^^^^ 
by  the  Negro  in  the  ^avrhtT^^  x?™*""^  ^"^  ^*«  ^li^s 
inthisbraLof  trerniSL"!       ^."^''  ^"^  represented 
portion,  and  Jnstas'SS™^^^^^^ 
the  Mississippi,  Dewej  at  SS  Bav  It'  ^'''"^"*  ''^ 
ago,  and  Peary  at  the  North  pl   if'       ^''^  ^*  ^^"t^" 
heroic  and  honorable  servw/     '  S"  '''''^''''^  ^^^^^"t 

n.ustberen.e.ber?d\r;\'hp?le    17^^^^^^^^  'I 

war  forces  which  kpnf  nr,^^  +1.    ^7  ""^^^  ^  P^^t  o±  the  great 

made  possible  the  STrl'pbofJr^  "^^^  -^ 

had  the  command  of  Zy       r  ^'  ^^'^^  ^™^^S'  for, 

those  a^ie^M  have  ,r^^^^^^^^  «"^  ^-^^ 

for  lack  of  support  S^meiS?  '°?  ''"""  ^^^^^^  I'^ck 
of  the  seas  passed  t^o^rf  '"'*'™^-  ^^^  *^^  ^^^Ptre 
never  have  inscribed  on  thei'  T  '""  ^^'^^  ^«^«  ^«"^d 
.^e  of  Chate:uSie:rS  "l^^Z^'J;!^^ 

NEGROES  IN  THE  GRAND  FLEET 
utlltod  in  the  c«mpW„l  Tetrfvle  Xr  T" 

s  Sir™'  *»-""X«X'':Lirt7e 

On  November  4  1917  the  T7  Q  q   a7    ^ 

Bea  from  Quiberon' Bay  on  eT^ort  du1t%     T^ ''^^'^  *' 

through  the  war  zone-  .b.^T  ^  **"  *^^^  "^^^^^^ 

8        c  war  zone,  she  had  as  members  of  her  crew 


THE  NBGKO  IN  THE  NAVY.  563       . 

«r  lives  >„  orde    *^'  'I  -"^^^  |„,„J,  5tK  »U1. 

Sf«a  aSport  tol  Jme  rnan  unknown,  'Submanne, 

*"""?■  tamed  ont  of  bed  and  «ent  to  the  upper 
,  -A  :  idthc  officer  of  the  deck,  Lieutenant  Paul,  stated 
'fSsoufdcd  ■General  quart^vs,'  had  seen  Bub„,aiine 
™  Lrfacc  about  three  hundred  yards  on  port  bow,  and 
on  snnfcs  »°''"     ,     t,...edo,  which  was  approaching.    I 

Paul  naa  put  luo  x^-^p^Io     The  ship  answered 

'r^^,X:Z"^:Ztd  ly  o-tber  action 

Ii\.  *,ken  tte  torpedo  I  saw  struck  the  ship's  side 

Llt^L"' tie  port  forward  chain  plates,  Bie  de- 

'"^;;iVa:tSo°4'd:rl  for  a  few  seconds  da.d  by 

CaMo  "he  forward  gun's  crew  to  see  it  at  -tet>«-.  "»* 
w  this  time  realised  that  the  forecastle  was  practically 
aLsb  Z  foremast  had  fallen,  carrying  away  radio 
aerial.    I  called  out  to  abandon  ship. 


56*  THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

THE  SINKING  SHIP. 


asked  him  if  he  had  seTi  '  ^i'"*^"^"*  I^eonard,  and 

then  directed  ^L^^t^^lZSe^^^^^^^^^^^  '^^''    ' 
and  told  him  to  take  chartro.fTu  ^"^  *^^  "^^^"  <ieek 

and  life  rafts.  I  t^en TroeeedM  ^^^ 
way  and  found  a  man  \^TflZ'  '*"''^^'  ^^"^- 
stooped  and  rolled  him  oZT!JT  i  r.  ^°  ^'°S^^^-  ^ 
no  reply  and  was  uTabTe  f  o  i^  ^t  ^'  ^^"'  ^"*  ^^^^^^^^ 
the  darkness.  It  is  4  optniinThat'tT;'""*^'  ^"^"^  *^ 
I  then  continued  to  the  after  L?  J  '  ""^^  ^^«  '^^^d. 
after  gun  platform  *^  ^^  '^'P'  *«''^  «t^tion  on 

her  ;rar:SirwS:  i^i^;t"^  r''^  -^ 

rected  the  after  dories  and  T^l  ^7  ?  ?^  *'^*^^-  ^  ^^• 
thrown  overboard  and  ordered  ,hf  *'  '^  '"*  "^^^  «"^ 
vicinity  to  jump  over  the  .ff  !  '''!^  '"  *^^  immediate 
Before  I  could  IZ  W  '  i?'"*^^"^  *°  ^«"«^  tl^em 
port,  plunging  byThe  heaTand^  f  ^  "'^^^'^  ^^^-^^  *« 
with  the  suction.  ''"^  '™^'  ^^^'^^i"?  me  down 

STRUGGLE  IN  THE  WATER 

life  raft,  to  whTch  wet  oZ  l^'"^  "  ^*^^  ^^^^^  *«  ^ 
on  board  this  raft  and  unotfT?  ^^"''  ^^"-  ^'  ^^'"^bed 
chief  boastwain '  mat^au]  0'^^;""'  ''"^"^'  ^«^^<^' 
boat.  We  paddled  to  tL  /,  .""  ""^^  ^  *^«  whale 
the  life  raft^  T^e  wha  e  w  °f  ?'  '™'^^^^<^  ^-- 
and  we  immediatelv  started  b  J''  ?.^'^  ^""  «^  "^^^^ 
-m  the  wreckage^  Xl^/;-:rt^r^^^^^ 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 


565 


more  than  its  maximum  capacity,  so  that  no  others  could 
r  taken  aboard.     We  then  picked  up  two  overturned 
dor  es  which  were  nested  together,  separated  them  and 
SedThem,  only  to  find  that  their  sterns  had  been  broken 
'  *'we  th;n  located  another  nest  of  dories,  which  were 
found  to  be  seaworthy.    Transferred  some  men  &om  the 
whTle  boat  into  these  dories  and  proceeded  to  pick  up  other 
men  from  wreckage.    During  this  time  cries  were  heard 
Som  iXmen  in  L  water  some  distance  away  who  were 
homing  on  to  wreckage  and  calling  for  assistance.    It  is 
be  leved  that  these  men  were  Earnest  M.  Harrison  and 
John  Winne,  Jr.    As  soon  as  the  dories  were  available 
we  proceeded  to  where  they  were  last  seen  but  could  find 

no  trace  of  them.  ■.    i.i     ^-n  hr^^^v  after 

"About  this  time,  which  was  probably  an  hour  atter 

the  ship  sank,  a  German  submanne  W-eh  ,d  ^ 

nf  torpedoing  and  lay  to,  near  some  of  the  doiies  ana  iiie 

afts     She  was  in  the  light  condition,  and  from  my  obser- 

vat  on  of  her  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  she  was  of  the  U-27- 

31  type     This  has  been  confirmed  by  having  a  number  of 

men  and  officers  check  the  silhouette  book.    The  submarine 

was  probably  one  hundred  yards  distant  from  my  whale 

boat   and  I  heard  no  remarks  from  anyone  on  the  sub- 

Snraltlu^h  I  observed  three  Pe-ns  f  Mmg^^^^^^^^ 

of  conning  tower.    After  laying  on  surface  about  halt  an 

hour  the  submarine  steered  off  and  submerged.    I  then 

proceeded  with  the  whale  boat  and  two  dories  searching 

Srough  the  wreckage  to  make  sure  that  no  survivors  were 


5«6  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

that  the  Ship  remained  afloat  eight  minutes.    The  ilare  of 
Penmark  Light  was  visible,  and  I  headed  for  it  and  asce 
tamed  the  course  by  Polaris  to  be  approximately  nortt 

officer  to  radio  immediately  to  Brest  reporting  tlfect  of 
orpedomg  and  that  three  officers  and  forty  mfn  were  Pro 

folZ  :oS:Ho^^:  ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^"  askance  SL 
int  to  th.T,  .i^^«^^^<^"l"ng  medical  attention  were 
P^ntllTo  beTalTe  %T''  ^T  T'  ^^  '^  «^^ 
infonned  that  tr S  do^CcSl? S  ^T 
Leonard,  Lieut.  H.  A.  Peterson,  P.  A.  Weon  Pa^i  O 

Poi^    S''  '"'  *"?*^-^^^  --  ^^<i  landedft  P'en  Mtch 
Zl    \  R'  ''  "^y  ^''*  intimation  that  these  officers  and 

of  my  mrt^at  r''  ''  *^  '^^  "°*  been  seen  by  any 
01  my  party  at  the  scene  of  torpedoing." 

DISAPPEARANCE  OF  THE  CYCLOPS 

in  +1?7'^*  contribution  of  life  on  the  part  of  the  Negro 
V  ,ll%  T''""  ""^  ^^^  "^^'^^  ^^^H  the  U.  S  S  war 
IZtolfTS  ^^^*^"r^^  disappeared.  Loaded  wTh 
officeS  and  a "r''';r*\^^*^-^^"^"  passengers,  twenty 

wasdueTnp^t^Cchr^l^^^^^^^^  '^'^  ^^^^ 

^r^for^Y^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

CVlf''^^'^'!  ^°«J-     Since  her  departur;  from  that 

nnd  Ion'       ?  "*?  ^''"  '^'  ^'^g^t^^t  t^ace  of  the"] 
and  long  continued  and  vigilant  search  of  the  entire  region 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  567 

J     ^.^■^r.^.r  -fii+ilp   as  not  a  vestige  of  wreckage  bas 

pfFPPt  on  her  ability  to  communicate  by  radio. 

«        T„  rSm  to  Ms  comection  with  the  Navy  Depart- 
offlcer,  who,  pnor  to  J^°™      ^^t  „^riM.    Many  accu- 

r^tsTerT .*"efle:u;.Tp«n  his  loyalty.  So.e  - 
sations  wer  g^jj^     that  he  had  mtunidaved  the 

in  thTmost  mfiato  incident    In  intelHgent  orcles 

uSd  and  wiil  n,aA  tte  ^^in^g  of  a  penod  ^^  a^^^^ 

.1.  ;i  ^^.iUtt     ■WTiPTi  ones  aeeds  and  cnaracLei  wxix 

S:S.y  crsSntet:"exponent  of  one's  appreciation. 

THE  NEGRO  TRUE  AND  LOYAL. 

<7aucasion  treachery  in  some  of  our  national  perils 
presented  no  charms  for  the  Negro  whose  P--^  f ^^  *^ 
everywhere  and  on  every  occasion  marks  him  the  great 
Scan  advocate  in  fact  as  well  as  in  profession. 

If  'hese  accusations  should  in  the  end  prove  true, 


568 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 


urgent  pressure  for  man  r^nw.^  +      ^    P''^'''^'  ^^^^  the 
-V,  of  the  Unite/ sre-falsTrtS  Sd7  ?\-P-<i-^ 
mzed  the  ability  and  merit  of  scores  of  1  v    ""^^  ''''^■ 
years  of  faithful  and  effinVrif  !     ^      •    ^''^  '"^"'  ^^ose 
United  States  and  unnufs  on  ^/^^^^^^^^  '^  *^'  "'^^  «^  *^^ 
title  them  to  the  cormatdTa  vtsS  oft?"  T"^  ^^- 
Mstead  of  utilizing  the  serv,Vp7  J  ^^ssel  of  this  character, 
a«d  doubtful  allegiance  irco^l"''".'^'^"''*'^"^^^^^^^^^^ 
^or  such  an  act  ff  base  and  ^^^^  '"'  ''"^"^  ^''''^'' 
unthinkable  to  a  Negro     Eath  ""P^^l^^^^^^  treachery  is 

W  seen  his  last  dr^^f  fi  Itylutod^r^  f  ""^^^ 
of  effusion  than  to  leave  to  bi«  ?  "^"^  '"  torrents 

shame  and  infamy.  ^'^'^^'^"^  «"^Ii  a  record  of 


THE  JACOB  JONES. 


.       ,-         .  --*"  j«»-vi5  JUNES 

Another  incident  in  which  tbn  w 
constant  willingness  to  die  for  1^7  ^'^""^/^^PVed  his 
its  ideals  was  then  the  UnSd  1  rV^  ^''''^  ^«<J 
^i^oyer  Jacoi  Jones  ^as  ae£^vJiV^^^^  ^"^^t  ^e- 
a  German  submarine  This  2  "^  '  *'"^''^'' ^^^'i  f™«^ 
escorting  group  which  was  rettl?'  T'  "^  '^  «^  ^" 
Brest  France,  to  QueenslanrirrnrSTr^^  ^^«- 
tract  from  the  report  of  it«  .:;  ,.  ^^^  following  ex- 

brief  detail  the  inanfert  th IhTh'"'^"^  ^^^^^  ^^-«  ^ 
met  their  death  in  an  eWtn  t  f/"""""^  «^  "«  ^^ew 
democracy.    On  this  vesS  ?^'^^  ^'^^  principles  of 

lost,  the  Negro  ser^d  S  d"a3^'?^?^^^^  *^^t  -- 
-temeninadesper;^^^l-ttb^ 

M  irom  about  one  point  abaft  the  star- 


THE  NB6B0  IN  THE  NAVY.  569 

leef  ;f  the  deck  had  already  put  the  ^^^^^^^^f^]^^ 
and  rung  up  the  emergency  speed  on  the  engme  room 
?5eJrph     The  ship  had  already  begun  to  swmg  to  the 
left     I  personally  rang  up  the  emergency  speed  agam 
ind  then  turnea  to  watcl  the  torpedo.    The  executive  offi- 
c  r  lef   the  cl.art  house  just  ahead  of  me,  saw  the  torpedo 
immediately  on  getting  outside  the  door,  and  estimates  that 
rto  pedo  wh^n  he'sighted  it  was  one  thousand  yards 
Iway  approaching  from  one  point,  or  slightly  less,  abaft 
the  beam  and  making  exceedingly  high  speed.  _ 

-Ifter  seeing  the  torpedo  and  realizing  the  straight 
run  lite  S  approach,  and  high  speed  it  was  making,  I  was 
conW  that  it  was  impossible  to  manouver  to  avoid  it. 
C  officer  of  the  deck  took  prompt  measures  in  man- 
ning to  avoid  the  torpedo.  The  torpedo  broached  and 
?umpd  clear  of  the  water  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
Sr  submerged  about  fifty  or  sixty  feet  from  the  ship 
Sd 'stTuTapproxiinately  three  feet  below  the  water-1  me 
ifthefoelll  tank  between  the  auxiliary  room  and  the 
after  crew  space. 

THE  SLOWLY  SINKING  SHIP. 
"The  ship  settled  aft  immediately  after  bdng  torpedoed 
to  a  point  at  which  the  deck  just  forward  of  t^e  a^e  d  k 
house  was  awash,  and  then,  more  gradually,  until  tHe  decK 
abreast  the  engine  room  hatch  was  awash.  A  man  on  watch 
in  the  eng  nTLom  attempted  to  close  the  water-tig^it  door 
"eiveen  L  auxiliary  room  and  the  eBgu^e  ro-^^^^^^^ 
unable  to  do  so  against  the  pressure  of  water  from  tne 


570  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

of  it  was  Wo™  clear X  ,  L  i  ''  '"*'  '°'™'<1 
twenty  feet  trZ  staled  „?:"  .'^dZt"^!.  "'  '"'°'" 
was  wrecked.  The  starbonrll  ,«.  ?  ?  amliaiy  room 
into  the  air  w^  »  ,  ?  ?*"  '"P"*"  '"■>«  "as  blown 
».™«on  ei^li'™'  °"  '^"'''  "*  'i=Pa«-%  ™  an,. 

Lteries  co  J^td "rafefftrt™  e^rt'^'l'  "^'""^ 
message  with  them  Lt  it  ' '°  '*"<'  o"'  a  low  power 

wouM^et  h^prSi'     Cth    Z  s7i^%r  '"' 

no  other  vessel  in  sight   and  it  wl  +T     ?       ^^^''^  '™' 
to  get  through  a  distress  s?^«ln7       ?''?'"'  impossible 

the  bridge  were  cut  adrm  ll^     I  ,  *^^  ''"^'^'^^  «* 

useful  inloldSrenup"!^^^^^^^^^  P^^^^^  ^^^y 

g  men  up  until  they  could  be  got  to  the  raft. 

STRUGGLING  MEN  IN  THE  WATER 

nteslfterbtiifgrpedoS  'Sf'  \  ^'^'"'"''''"  """■ 
I  ran  along  thf  dtTaSdefedX  SfS^;^'''''' 
overboard  At  this  Bn,e,  n,„st  of  Zelt'Sd  hJTh!: 
explosion  had  sot  clear  nf  +\.^  ci.-  •,  ^^"«a  oy  tiie 
wreckage      Sn^.    t  ^^'^  ^"'^  ^^^^  on  rafts  or 

app:ss-torair:^,,--3--™- 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  571 

at  some  distance  from  the  rafts,  probably  having  jumped 
overboard  very  soon  after  the  ship  was  torpedoed. 

''Before  the  ship  sank,  two  shots  were  fired  from  No.  4 
gun  with  the  hope  of  attracting  the  attention  of  some  near- 
SsS)     As  the  ship  began  sinking  I  jmnped  overboard. 
The  sSp  sank  stern  first  and  twisted  slowly  through  nearly 
one  hundred  and  eighty  degrees  as  she  swung  upright 
From  this  nearly  vertical  position,  bow  in  the  air,  o  abou 
the  forward  point,  she  went  straight  down     Before  the 
ih?p  reached  the  Vertical  position  the  depth  charges  ex- 
ploded and  I  believe  them  to  have  caused  the  death  of  a 
number  of  men.    They  also  partially  paralyzed,  stunned  or  . 
ZTll  numbe;  of  others,  some  of  whom  are  still  disabled. 

SAFEGUARDING  THE  SURVIVORS. 

"Immediate  efforts  were  made  to  get  all  ^^''''ZlZ 
the  rafts  and  then  get  the  rafts  and  boats  together.    Three 
tafts  were  launched  before  the  ship  sank  and  one  floated 
nff  whTshe  sank.    The  motor  dory,  hull  undamaged  but 
engS  out  of  comn.ission,  also  floated  off  and  the  punt 
and  wherry  also  floated  clear.    The  punt  was  wrecked  be 
vond  usefulness  and  the  wherry  was  damaged  and  leaking 
badiy   but  was  of  considerable  use  in  getting  men  to  the 
raftJ'    The  whale  boat  was  launched  but  capsized  soon 
afterwards,  having  been  damaged  by  the  explosion  of  the 
depThcrarges.    The  motor  sailor  did  not  float  clear,  but 
wpTit  down  with  the  ship,  . 

"'"'. About  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  after  the  ship  san^, 
the  submarine  appeared  on  the  surface  about  two  or  three 
mile?  to  the  westward  of  the  raft,  and  gradually  ap- 
proached until  about  eight  hundred  or  one  thousand  yards 
from  the  ship,  where  it  stopped  and  was  seen  to  pick  up 
one  unidentified  man  from  the  water.  The  submarine  then 
submerged  and  was  not  seen  again. 


^^^  THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

BY  MOTOR  DORY  TO  THE  SCILLY  ISLANDS 

fn  Jl'^''"  ^''^^^  "P  ^^  *^^  °^«t«r  <iory  and  at  once  beo-an 
to  make  arrangements  to  reach  the  Scillvs  in+ZiJ, 
m  order  to  get  assistance  to  those  on  he'^^ats  ^^^^^^^^^^ 
survivors  then  in  sight  were  collected  and  I  gave  or^L  to 

some  emergency  rations  and  a  half  bucket  o?  ^ter  .n 

JoT:r,.rrs  r^f^^si-  ^-" '- 'S 

about  six  miles  soJth  of  si  Ma^;'^  %Tef  ^'"'V'^' 
forming  me  that  the  rp.+  Tf  Z  ^    ■  commander  in- 

Pie      tne  spirit  of  the  men  under  these  conditions. 
INSTANCE  OF  RARE  SELF-DENIAL 

L*Sf  °  AXr  martSr  TTr  "'"'^  *^^- 
.ema,„e.  in  t.e  ir^ltrenl*-  ^1^^ 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  573 

for  floating  from  the  ship.  While  he  did  not  succeed  in 
accomplishing  this  act  (which  wonld  have  undoubtedly 
saved  twenty  or  thirty  lives)  stuck  to  his  duty  until  the 
very  last.  He  was  drawn  under  the  water  with  the  boat, 
but  later  came  to  the  surface  and  was  rescued." 

Y/allace  Simpson,  a  young  Negro,  was  a  petty  officer 
aboard  this  vessel.  Young  Simpson  was  a  graduate  of  the 
high  school,  Denver,  Colorado,  and  at  the  call  of  his  coun- 
try, when  but  in  the  prime  of  his  life,  made  the  supreme 
sacrifice  in  order  that  the  world  might  be  made  safe  for 
democracy. 

NEGRO  FIREMEN  AND  COAL  PASSERS. 
It  seems  that  fate  always  throws  the  Negro  in  a  line 
of  service  wherein  he  can  by  some  method,  peculiarly  his 
own,  have  an  opportunity  to  display  his  ability,  loyalty 
and  usefulness,  in  spite  of  prejudice  and  opposition,    i 
particularly  refer  here  to  the  positions  of  firemen  and  coal 
passers,  because  of  the  physical  strength  required  for  work 
of  that  kind.    The  Negro  can  serve  better  in  the  American 
navy  in  this  capacity  than  in  any  other,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  the  messman  branch  of  service;  but,  never- 
theless, in  the  former  positions  he  has  a  decidedly  better 
opportunity  to  bring  into  play  originality  and  foresight, 
for  the  fire-room  is  the  life  of  the  ship  and  especially  so 

when  attacked.  .  , 

When  one  of  the  vessels  of  our  navy  had  been  hit  with 
one  torpedo  from  an  enemy  submarine  and  was  about  to 
be  hit  with  a  second,  the  commanding  officer  had  the  fol- 
lowing statement  to  make  :  "I  realized  that  the  immediate 
problem  was  to  escape  a  second  torpedo.  To  do  so,  two 
things  were  necessary,  te  attack  the  enemy,  and  to  make 
more  speed  than  he  could  submerged.  The  depth  charge 
crew  jumped  to  their  stations  and  immediately  started 


574  THE  NEGJBO  IN  THE  NAVY, 

dropping  depth  bombs,    A  barraffp  nf  rl^^+T,    i, 

mg  us  and  attacking  us  after  nightfall.  ^'^ 

below  the  water  level,  practically  enclosed  in  a  +T«n   +hl 

WONDERFUL  DEVOTION  TO  DUTY 
derfjfact  ^tlfar^?'  T  ^'''^^^^  ^'  ^^^^^  «*  t^e  won- 

However  strong  .a.t  Lf^f ta  ^l-  fS" 

ar:rstand  ZT'^l  f^"^^^'  *^^^^  cLro'llin?iS;utes 
are  to  stand  by  their  stations  and  duty  at  all  hazards. 

m  at  least  two  instances  in  this-  crisis  below   mpn 

^  i  JlYtt  •  "^  "  r  '^^^  ^^  ^-*^  ^^^  actuaUy  fo'gTt 
oredTdo  Iw  ^^P"'^^«^  self-preservation  and  endefv- 
ored  to  do  what  appeared  to  them  to  be  their  duty.  One 
man  was  in  one  of  the  flooded  fire  rooms.    He  was  throl 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  575 

to  the  floor  and  instantly  enveloped  in  flames  from  the 
burning  gases  driven  from  the  furnaces,  but  mstead  of 
rushing  to  escape,  he  turned  and  endeavored  to  shut  a 
water-tight  door  leading  into  a  large  bunker  abaft  the  fire 
room     But  the  hydraulic  lever  that  operated  the  door  had 
been  injured  by  the  shock  and  failed  to  function.    Three 
men  at  work  at  this  bunker  were  drowned.    If  this  man 
had  succeeded  in  shutting  the  door,  the  lives  of  these  men 
would  have  been  saved  as  well  as  considerable  bouyancy 
saved  to  the  ship.    The  fact  that  he,  though  profoundly 
stunned  by  the  shock  and  almost  fatally  burned  by  the 
furnace  gases,  should  have  had  presence  of  mind  and  the 
courage  to  endeavor  to  shut  the  door  is  a  great  example 
of  heroic  devotion  to  duty  as  is  possible  for  one  to  imagme. 
Immediately  after  attempting  to  close  the  door  he  was 
caught  in  the  swirl  of  inrushing  water  and  thrust  up  a 
ventilator  leading  to  the  upper  deck. 

STRANGE  EFFECT  OF  THE  EXPLOSIONS. 

"The  torpedo  exploded  on  a  bulkhead  separating  two 
fire  rooms,  the  explosive  effect  being  apparently  equal  in 
both  fire  rooms,  yet,  in  one  fire  room  not  a  man  was  saved, 
while  in  the  other  fire  room  two  of  the  men  escaped.  The 
explosion  blasted  through  the  outer  and  inner  skin  of  the 
ship  and  through  an  intervening  coal  bunker  and  bulk- 
head, hurling  overboard  seven  hundred  and  fifty  tons  of 
coal.'  The  two  men  saved  were  working  the  fires  withm 
thirty  feet  of  the  explosion  and  just  below  the  level  where 
the  torpedo  struck. 

"It  is  difScult  to  see  how  it  was  possible  for  these  men 
to  have  escaped  the  shower  of  debris,  coal  and  water  that 
must  instantly  have  followed  the  explosion.  However,  the 
two  men  were  not  only  saved  but  seemed  to  have  retamed 
full  possession  of  their  faculties.     Both  of  them  were 


576  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

knocked  down  and  blo^™  across  the  fire  room.  Their  sensa- 
tions were  at  first  a  shower  of  flying  coal,  followed  by  nn 
overwhelramg  inrush  of  water  that  swirled  them  round  and 
round  and  finally  thrust  them  up  against  the  graSngs  of 
the  top  of  the  fire  rooms."  ° 

THE  ATTACK  UPON  THE  TORPEDO  BOAT  CASSIN 

Another  instance  of  self-sacrifice  and  unparalleled 
heroism  is  contained  in  the  account  of  the  attack  upon  the 
torpedo  hoat  Ca.sin  by  a  German  submarine,  while  on 
patrol  duty  off  the  coast  of  Ireland.  The  fol]o;inc.  is  the 
story  briefly  related  in  the  ofiicial  report  of  her  coi^and- 
mg  officer:  xiuimiiu 

"men  about  twenty  miles  south  of  Minehead,  at  1:30 
J-.  M  a  German  submarine  was  sighted  by  the  lookout 
W     T^  ""^       "^^les/^ay,  about  two  points  on  the  port 

out  by  officers  of  the  watch  and  the  quartermaster  of  the 
watch,  but  three  minutes  later  submerged.     The  Cassin 
which  was  making  fifteen  knots  continued  on  iS  course 
until  near  the  position  where  the  submarine  had  disaD- 
peared.    When  last  seen  the  submarine  was  heading  in^l 
southeasterly  direction,  and  when  the  destroyer  reached  the 
point  of  disappearance  the  course  was  changed,  as  it  was 
thought  the  vessel  would  make  a  decided  change  of  course 
after  submerging.     At  this  time  the  commanding  officer 
the  executive  officer,  engineer  officer,  officer  of  the  watch' 
and  the  junior  watch  officers  were  all  on  the  bridge  search- 
ing lor  the  submarine. 

THE  ATTACK. 

"About  1 :57  P.  M.,  the  commanding  officer  sighted  a 
torpedo  apparently  shortly  after  it  had  been  fired  run- 
nmg  near  the  surface  and  in  a  direction  that  was  esti- 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  .    577 

mated  would  make  a  hit  either  in  the  engine  or  fire  room. 
When  first  seen  the  torpedo  was  between  three  or  four 
hundred  yards  from  the  ship,  and  the  wake  could  be  fol- 
lowed on  the  other  side  for  about  four  hundred  yards. 
The  torpedo  was  running  at  high  speed,  at  least  thirty- 
five  knots.    The  Cassin  was  manoeuvering  to  dodge  the  tor- 
pedo, double  emergency  full  speed  ahead  having  been  sig- 
nalled from  the  engine  room  and  the  rudder  put  hard  left 
as  soon  as  the  torpedo  was  sighted.     It  looked  for  the 
moment  as  though  the  torpedo  would  pass  astern.    When 
about  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  away  the  torpedo  porpoised, 
completely  leaving  the  water  and  sheering  to  the  left.    Be- 
fore again  taking  the  water  the  torpedo  hit  the  ship  well 
aft  on  the  port  side  about  frame  one  hundred  sixty-three 
and  above  the  water  line.    Almost  immediately  after  the 
explosion  of  the  torpedo  the  depth  charges,  located  on  the 
stern  and  ready  for  firing,  exploded.    There  were  two  dis- 
tinct explosions  in  quick  succession  after  the  torpedo  hit. 
*'But  one  life  was  lost.    Osman  K.  Ingram,  gunner's 
mate,  first  class,  was  cleaning  the  muzzle  of  number  4  gun, 
target  practice  being  just  over  when  the  attack  occurred. 
With  rare  presence  of  mind,  realizing  that  the  torpedo 
was  about  to  strike  the  part  of  the  ship  where  the  depth 
charges  were  stored  and  that  the  setting  off  of  these  ex- 
plosions might  sink  the  ship,  Ingram,  immediately  seeing 
the  danger,  ran  aft  to  strip  these  charges  and  throw  them 
overboard.     He  was  blown  to  pieces  when  the  torpedo 
struck.    Thus,  Ingram  sacrificed  his  life  in  the  perform- 
ance of  a  duty  which  he  believed  would  save  his  §hip  and 
the  lives  of  the  officers  and  men  on  board." 

TORPEDOING  THE  PRESIDENT  LINCOLN. 
One  of  the  most  spectacular  and  thrilling  incidents  of 
our  naval  warfare  in  which  more  than  a  score  of  colored 


578  THE  NEGEO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

rj.^T'^^  and  lieroicaUy  participated,  was  the  attack 

r..r     I  "^  *^/  ^-  ^-  '^-  ^''''^''''  ^^'^0^^'  the  com- 
manding oiBcer  of  which  reports  as  foUows- 

"On  May  31,  1918,  the  President  Lincoln  was  retum- 
mg  to  America  from  a  voyage  to  France,  and  was  in  line 
formation  with  the  U.  S.  S.  Susquehanna,  Antigone,  and 
Ryndam  the  latter  being  on  the  left  flank  of  the  forma- 
tion and  a^out  eight  hundred  yards  from  the  President 
Lincoln     The  ships  were  about  iive  hundred  miles  from 
the  coast  of  France  and  had  passed  through  what  was  con- 
sidered to  be  the  most  dangerous  part  of  the  war  zone. 
At  about  9  A.  M.  a  terrific  explosion  occurred  on  the  port 
Bide  of  the  ship  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  from 
the  bow  and  immediately  afterwards  another  explosion 
occurred  on  the  port  side  of  the  ship  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty  feet  from  the  stem,  these  explosions  being  im- 
mediately identified  as  coming  from  torpedoes  fired  by  a 
tierman  submarine. 

"It  was  found  that  the  ship  had  been  struck  by  three 
torpedoes,  which  were  fired  as  one  salvo  from  the  sub- 
marine, two  of  the  torpedoes  striking  practicaDy  together 
near  the  bow  of  the  ship  and  the  third  striking  near  the 
Stem.    The  wake  of  the  torpedo  had  been  sighted  by  the 
officers  and  lookouts  on  watch,  but  the  torpedoes  were  so 
close  to  the  ship  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  avoid  them; 
and  It  was  also  found  that  the  submarine  at  the  time  of 
firing  was  only  about  eight  hundred  yards  from  the  Presi- 
dent  Lincoln.    There  were  at  the  time  seven  hundred  and 
fifteen  persons  on  board,  some  of  these  were  sick  and  two 
men  were  totally  paralyzed. 

COOLNESS  AND  DISCIPLINE. 
"The  alarm  was  immediately  sounded  and  everyone 
went  to  his  proper  station  which  had  been  designated  at 
previous  drills.    There  was  not  the  slightest  confusion  and 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  579 

the  crew  and  pasengers  waited  for  and  acted  on  orders 
from  the  commanding  officer  with  a  coolness  which  was 
truly  inspiring.  Inspections  were  made  below  decks  and 
it  was  found  that  the  ship  was  rapidly  filling  with  water, 
both  forward  and  aft,  and  that  there  was  little  likelihood 
that  she  would  remain  afloat.  The  boats  were  lowered  and 
the  life  rafts  were  placed  in  the  water  and  about  fifteen 
minutes  after  the  ship  was  struck  all  hands  except  guns' 
crews  were  ordered  to  abandon  the  ship. 

'^It  had  been  previously  planned  that  in  order  to  avoid 
the  losses  which  have  occurred  in  such  instances  by  filling 
the  boats  at  the  davits  before  lowering  them,  that  only 
one  officer  and  five  men  would  get  into  the  boats  before  low- 
ering and  that  everyone  else  would  get  into  the  water  and 
get  on  the  life  rafts  and  then  be  picked  up  by  the  boats, 
this  being  entirely  feasible,  as  everyone  was  provided  with 
an  efficient  life-saving  jacket.     One  exception  was  made 
to  the  plan,  however,  in  that  one  boat  was  filled  with  the 
sick  before  being  lowered  and  it  was  in  this  boat  that  the 
paralyzed  men  were  saved  without  difficulty. 
THE  SHIP  ABANDONED. 
<^The  guns'  crews  were  held  at  their  stations  hoping 
for  an  opportunity  to  fire  on  the  submarine  should  it  ap- 
pear before  the  ship  sank,  and  orders  were  given  to  the 
guns'  crews  to  begin  firing,  hoping  that  this  might  prevent 
further  attack.    All  the  ship's  company  except  the  guns' 
crews  and  the  necessary  officers  were  at  that  time  in  the 
boats  and  on  the  rafts  near  the  ship,  and  when  the  guns' 
crews  began  firing,  the  people  in  the  boats  set  up  a  cheer 
to  show  that  they  were  not  downhearted.    The  guns'  crews 
only  left  their  guns  when  ordered  by  the  commanding  offi- 
cer just  before  the  ship  sank.    The  guns  in  the  bow  kept 
up  firing  until  after  the  water  was  entirely  over  the  main 
deck  of  the  after  half  of  the  ship. 


580  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

..o  '1^1  ^*^*^  ?*  discipline  which  existed  and  the  cool- 
ness of  the  men  is  well  illustrated  by  what  occurred  when 

tJT-  T'-^f  ^  ^'^'''^  ^^-i  ^^re  about  haff  way 
from  their  davits  to  the  water.  At  this  particular  ZI 
there  appeared  some  possibility  of  the  ship  not  sinW 
immediately  and  the  commanding  officer  gave  the  ordef 
0  stop  lowering  the  boats.  This  ofder  coull  not  be  unde^ 
stood  however,  owmg  to  the  noise  caused  by  escaping  steam 
from  the  safety  valves  of  the  boilers  which  had  b  en  S 
to  prevent  explosion,  but  by  motion  of  the  hand  f  "om  tte 

IZTu'^^  '^-'^  *^^  ^^^^«  «t«PP^«i  lowering  the  bofts 
and  held  them  m  mid  air  for  a  few  minutes  until  at  a 

INSPECTED  BY  THE  SUBMARINE. 
"Immediately  after  the  ship  sank  the  boats  pulled 
among  the  rafts  and  were  loaded  with  men  to  their  fuU 
capacity  and  the  work  of  collecting  the  rafts  and  tying 
them  together  to  prevent  drifting  apart  and  being  lost 
was  begun.    WJile  this  work  was  under  way  and  about 
half  an  hour  after  the  ship  sank,  a  large  German  sub- 
marine emerged  and  came  among  the  boats  and  rafts, 
searchmg  for  the  commanding  officer  and  some  of  the  senior 
officers  whom  they  desired  to  take  prisoners.    The  sub- 
marine commander  was  able  to  identify  only  one  officer, 
Lieut.  E.  V.  M.  Isaacs,  whom  he  took  on  board.    The  sub- 
marme  remained  in  the  vicinity  of  the  boats  for  about  two 
hours  and  returned  again  in  the  afternoon,  hoping  ap- 
parently for  an  opportunity  of  attacking  some  of  the  other 
ships  which  had  been  in  company  with  the  Presiaent  Lin- 
coln, but  which  had,  in  accordance  with  standard  instruc- 
tions, steamed  as  rapidly  as  possible  from  the  scene  of 
attack. 

"By  dark  the  boats  and  rafts  had  been  collected  and 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  581 

secured  together,  there  being  about  five  hundred  naen  in 
the  boats  and  about  two  hundred  on  the  rafts.  Lighted 
lanterns  were  hoisted  in  the  boats  and  flare-up  lights  and 
signal  lights  were  burned  every  few  minutes,  the  necessary 
detail  of  men  being  made  to  carry  out  this  work  during  the 
night.  The  boats  had  been  provided  with  water  and  food, 
but  none  was  used  during  the  day,  as  the  quantity  was 
necessarily  limited,  and  it  might  be  a  period  of  several 
days  before  a  rescue  could  be  effected. 

THE  RESCUE. 

''The  ship's  wireless  plant  had  been  put  out  of  com- 
mission by  the  force  of  the  explosion,  and  although  the 
ship's  operator  had  sent  the  radio  distress  signal,  yet  it 
was  known  that  the  nearest  destroyers  were  two  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  away,  protecting  another  convoy,  and  it 
was  possible  that  military  necessity  might  prevent  their 
being  detached  to  come  to  our  rescue.  At  about  11  P.  M. 
a  white  light  flashing  in  the  blackness  of  the  night,— it 
was  very  dark— was  sighted,  and  very  shortly  it  was  found 
that  the  destroyer  Warrington  had  arrived  lo  our  rescue 
and  about  an  hour  afterwards  the  destroyer  ^SmitJi  also 
arrived.  The  transfer  of  the  men  from  the  boats  anS  raffs 
to  the  destroyers  was  effected  as  quickly  as  possible  and 
the  destroyers  remained  in  the  vicinity  until  after  day- 
light the  following  morning,  when  a  further  search  was 
made  for  survivors  who  might  have  drifted  in  a  boa?  or  on 
a  raft,  but  none  were  found,  and  at  about  6  SJ.  M.,  the 
return  trip  to  France  was  Begun. 

*'0f  the  seven  hundred  and  fifteen  men  present  all 
told  on  board,  it  was  found  after  the  muster  that  three 
oflScers  and  twenty-three  men  were  lost  with  the  ship,  and 
that  one  officer  had  been  taken  prisoner. 


582  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

CONDUCT  OF  THE  SUBMARINE  COMMANDER. 
"Although  the  German  submarine  commander  made 
DO  offers  of  assistance  of  any  kind,  yet  otherwise  his  con- 
duct for  the  ship's  company  in  the  boat  was  all  that  could 
be  expected.    We  naturally  had  some  apprehension  as  to 
whether  or  not  he  would  open  fire  on  the  boats  and  rafts. 
I  thought  he  might  probably  do  this,  as  an  attempt  to 
make  me  and  other  officers  disclose  their  identity.    This 
possibility  was  evidently  in  the  minds  of  the  men  of  the 
crew  also,  because  at  one  time  I  noticed  some  one  on  the 
submarine  walk  to  the  muzzle  of  one  of  the  guns,  appar- 
ently with  the  intention  of  preparing  it  for  action.    This 
was  evidently  observed  by  some  of  the  men  in  my  boat, 
and  I  heard  the  remark,  'Good  night,  here  comes  the  fire- 
works.'   The  spirit  which  actuated  remarks  of  this  kind, 
under  such  circumstances,  could  be  none  other  than  that  of 
cool  courage  and  bravery." 

CAPTURED  BY  SUBMARINE,  NAVAL  OFFICER  ESCAPES. 

(Condensed  from  report  by  Lieutenant  Edouard  Victor  M.  Isaacs  on  his  capture 
and  escape  from  a  German  prison  camp.) 

"The  President  Lincoln  went  down  about  9:30  in  the 
morning,  thirty  minutes  after  being  struck  by  three  tor- 
pedoes. In  obedience  to  orders  I  abandoned  ship  after 
seeing  all  hands  aft  safely  off  the  vessel.  The  boats  had 
pulled  away,  but  I  stepped  on  a  raft  floating  alongside, 
Ih'e  quarter  deck  being  then  awash,  S  few  minutes  later 
one  of  the  boats  picked  me  up.  The  submarine  TJ-90,  re- 
turned and  the  commanding  officer,  while  searching  for 
Captain  Foote  of  the  President  'Lincoln,  took  me  out  of 
the  boat.  I  told  him  my  captain  had  gone  down  with  the 
ship,  whereupon  he  steamed  away,  taking  me  prisoner  to 
Germany.  We  passed  to  the  north  of  the  Shetlands  into 
the  North  Sea,  the  Skaggerak,  the  Cattegat,  and  the  Sound 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  583 

into  the  Baltic.    Proceeding  to  Kiel,  we  passed  down  the 
canal  through  Heligoland  Bight  to  Wilhehnshaven. 

'*0n  the  way  to  the  Shetlands,  we  fell  in  with  two 
American  destroyers,  the  Smith  and  the  Warrington,  who 
dropped  twenty-two  depth  bombs  on  ns.  We  were  sub- 
merged to  a  depth  of  sixty  meters  and  weathered  the  storm, 
although  five  bombs  were  very  close  and  shook  us  up  con- 
siderably. The  information  I  had  been  able  to  collect  was, 
I  considered,  of  enough  importance  to  warrant  my  trying 
to  escape.  Accordingly  in  Danish  waters  I  attempted  to 
jump  from  the  deck  of  the  submarine  but  was  caught  and 
ordered  below. 

MADE  A  PRISONER  OF  WAR. 

**The  German  navy  authorities  took  me  from  Wil- 
helmshaven  to  Karlsruhe,  where  I  was  turned  over  to  the 
army.  Here  I  met  officers  of  all  the  Allied  armies,  and 
with  them  I  attempted  several  escapes,  all  of  which  were 
unsuccessful.  After  three  weeks  at  Karlsruhe  I  was  sent 
to  the  American  and  Eussian  officers'  camp  at  Villinen. 
On  the  way  I  attempted  to  escape  from  the  train  by  jump- 
ing out  of  the  window.  With  the  train  making  about  forty 
miles  an  hour,  I  landed  on  the  opposite  railroad  tracK 
and  was  so  severely  wounded  by  the  fall  that  I  could  not 
get  away  from  my  guard.  They  followed  me,  firing  con- 
tinuously. When  they  recaptured  me  they  struck  me  on 
the  head  and  body  with  their  guns  until  one  broke  his  rifle. 
It  snapped  in  two  at  the  small  of  the  stock  as  he  struck 
me  with  the  butt  on  the  back  of  the  head. 

PLACED  IN  SOLITARY  CONFINEMENT. 
''I  was  given  two  weeks'  solitary  confinement  for  this 
attempt  to  escape,  but  continued  trying,  for  I  was  deter- 
mined to  get  my  information  back  to  the  navy.    Finally, 
on  the  night  of  October  6th,  assisted  by  several  army  offi- 


584  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

cers,  I  was  able  to  effect  an  escape  by  short-circuiting  all 
lighting  circuits  in  the  prison  camps  and  cutting  through 
barbed  wire  fences  surrounding  the  camp.     This  had  to 
be  done  in  the  face  of  a  heavy  riiBe  fire  from  the  guards. 
But  it  was  difficult  for  them  to  see  in  the  darkness,  so  I 
escaped  unscathed.    In  company  with  an  American  officer 
in  the  French  army,  I  made  my  way  for  seven  days  and 
nights  over  mountains  to  the  Ehine,  which  to  the  south  of 
Baden  forms  the  boimdary  between  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land.   After  a  four-hour  crawl  on  hands  and  knees  I  was 
able  to  elude  the  sentries  along  the  Ehine.    Plunging  in, 
I  made  for  the  Swiss  shore.    After  being  carried  several 
miles  down  the  stream,  being  frequently  submerged  by  the 
rapid  currents,  I  finally  reached  the  opposite  shore  and 
gave  myself  up  to  the  Swiss  gendarmes,  who  turned  me 
over  to  the  American  legation  at  Berne.     From  there  I 
made  my  way  to  Paris  and  then  London  and  finally  Wash- 
ington, where  I  arrived  four  weeks  after  my  escape  from 
Germany." 

The  accounts  and  incidents  heretofore  mentioned  are 
but  a  few  of  the  exceptionally  meritorious  cases,  of  the 
many,  in  which  the  devotion  to  duty  and  the  unquestioned 
heroism  characterized  the  conduct  of  the  Negro  under  the 
galling  fire  of  danger  and  death. 

CAN  NOT  SPECIFY  THE  WORK  OF  THE  NEGRO  SEAMEN. 

Primarily  due  to  the  difference  in  organization  be- 
tween the  army  and  navy  of  the  United  States,  it  is  well 
nigh  impossible  to  point  out  and  record  with  any  degree 
of  accuracy  the  signal  and  patriotic  sacrifices  of  any  great 
body  of  Negroes  as  a  unit  in  the  naval  service.  While  in 
the  army,  where  segregation  and  discrimination  of  the 
rankest  type  force  the  Negro  into  distinct  Negro  units; 
the  navy,  on  the  other  hand,  has  its  quota  of  black  men  on 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  585 

every  vessel  carrying  the  starry  emblem  of  freedom  on 
the  high  seas  and  in  every  shore  station.  The  operations 
of  the  navy  of  the  "United  States  during  the  World  War 
has  covered  the  widest  scope  in  its  history  without  a  doubt. 
It  carried  the  Negro  in  European  waters  from  the  Medi- 
terranean to  the  White  Sea.  At  Corfu,  Gibralter,  along 
the  French  Bay  of  Biscay,  in  the  English  Channel,  on  the 
Irish  coast,  in  the  North  Sea,  at  Murmansk  and  Arch- 
angel, he  was  ever  present  to  experience  whatever  of  hard- 
ships were  necessary  and  to  make  whatever  sacrifices  de- 
manded, that  the  proud  and  glorious  record  of  the  navy 
of  the  United  States  should  remain  untarnished. 

WORK  OF  COLORED  SEAMEN. 
He  formed  a  part  of  the  crew  of  nearly  two  thousand 
vessels  that  plied  the  briny  deep,  on  submarines  that  feared 
not  the  under  sea  peril,  and  wherever  a  naval  engagement 
was  undertaken  or  the  performance  of  a  duty  by  a  naval 
vessel,  the  Negro,  as  a  part  of  the  crew  of  that  vessel, 
necessarily  contributed  to  the  successful  prosecution  of  that 
duty;  and,  whatever  credit  or  glory  is  achieved  for  Ameri- 
can valor,  it  was  made  possible  by  the  faithful  execution 
of  his  duty,  regardless  of  his  character.    For,  on  a  battle- 
ship where  the  strictest  system  of  co-ordination  and  co- 
operation among  all  who  compose  the  crew  is  absolutely 
necessary,  each  man  is  assigned  a  particular  and  a  special 
duty  independent  of  the  other  men,  and  should  he  fail  in 
its  faithful  discharge  the  loss  of  the  vessel  and  its  enter- 
prise might  possibly  result. 

TRAINING  FOR  SERVICE. 
Far  be  it  from  the  intention  of  this  article  to  condone 
the  existing  policy  of  the  navy  of  the  United  States  as 
regards  the  Negro,  where  unwritten  law  prescribes  and 


586  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

precludes  him  from  service  above  a  designated  status.    It 
IS  well  known  that  no  Negro  has  ever  graduated  from  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy,  at  Annapolis,  Maryland 
which  IS  primarily  essential  to  receive  a  commission  as  a 
line  officer  of  the  navy.    It  is  true  that  some  three  or  four 
Negroes  have  attempted  to  complete  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion at  this  academy,  but,  their  treatment,  as  a  result  of 
race  prejudice,  made  their  efforts  futile,  as  well  as  their 
stay  there  more  miserable  than  a  decade  of  confinement 
m  a  Hun  penitentiary.     Intimidation,  humiliation,  and 
actual  physical  violence,  notwithstanding  their  determina- 
tion, finally  resulted  in  the  conclusion  to  abandon  the  cov- 
eted goal  of  becoming  officers  in  the  great  navy  of  the 
United  States. 

It  is  also  known  that  notwithstanding  the  urgent  pres- 
sure for  experienced  men  to  officer  the  expanding  navy 
as  a  result  of  the  World  War,  it  became  necessary  to  com- 
mission hundreds  of  men,  who  as  a  result  of  their  experi- 
ence as  enhsted  men,  are  temporary  officers.  But  none  of 
these  commissions  was  given  to  a  Negro,  despite  the  fact 
that  scores  of  them  had  rendered  honorable  service  of  from 

f  .  ^^^T^T  ^^^""^  ^""^  "^^^^  exceptionally  qualified  as 
stated  by  their  commanding  officers  for  these  commissions. 
During  the  war  there  were  approximately  eleven  thousand 
men  commissioned  as  officers.  A  great  majority  of  this 
mmber  were  commissioned  as  pay  clerks,  paymasters,  med- 
ical officers,  and  other  ranks,  wherein  no  technical  naval 
knowledge  or  experience  is  required.  And  it  is  strange 
to  note  that  not  a  single  Negro  received  one  of  these  com- 
missions. 

INSUFFICIENT  NUMBER  OP  OFFICERS. 
In  his  annual  report  to  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States,  the  secretary  of  the  navy  department  made  the 
following  statement:   "The  regular  navy  personnel  as  it 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  587 

existed  at  the  beginning  of  tlie  war  has  been  repeatedly 
combed  for  warrant  officers  and  enlisted  men  competent 
for  advancement  to  commissioned  rank,  and  this  source 
furnished  experienced  and  capable  officers.  But  more  were 
needed  and  they  came  from  new  recruits.  It  early  became 
evident  that  as  the  new  men  came  into  the  service  they 
should  be  tried  out  for  officer  qualifications  and  that  those 
having  talent  should  receive  special  instruction  to  prepare 
them  for  officer  duty.  Officer  material  schools  were  hastily 
improvised  in  the  various  naval  districts  at  the  outbreak 
of  war  to  train  the  new  men  coming  in,  etc." 

In  the  face  of  the  above  admission  of  the  serious  short- 
age of  qualified  men,  it  can  not  be  understood  why  the 
awarding  of  commissions  was  made  to  inexperienced  white 
boys  with  no  prior  naval  experience  or  demonstrated  abil- 
ity in  preference  to  the  Negro,  who  has  demonstrated  his 
fitness  and  ability  by  years  of  faithful  service  in  every 
phase  of  naval  activity  to  which  he  has  been  given  access. 

GERMAN  PROPAGANDA  EFFORT. 

But,  in  spite  of  these  outward  and  open  acts  of  preju- 
dice and  oppression,  the  Negro  never  wavered  in  the  loyal 
performance  of  any  duty,  however  humble  or  arduous  with 
which  he  was  charged.  And  it  might  be  mentioned  that 
these  acts  of  oppression  were  brought  to  his  attention  and 
emphasized  by  subtle  German  propagandists,  who  hoped 
to  alienate  his  affections  and  devotion  from  his  native 
country.  As  an  example  of  this  diabolical  scheme,  the 
followmg  letter,  which  was  dropped  from  German  balloons 
over  a  sector  held  by  Negro  troops,  in  September,  1918, 

is  quoted:  tt  -a  j 

"To  the  Colored  Soldiers  and  Sailors  of  the  United 

States:     Hello,  boys!    What  are  you  doing  over  here? 

Fighting  the  Germans?    Why?    Have  they  ever  done  you 


588  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

ay  harm?    Of  course,  some  white  folks  and  the  lying 
Enghsh-Amenean  papers  told  you  that  the  Germans  ought 

ttrS",    '"*  ''"^f^^^-^^  of  humanity  and  democra^cy 
What  IS  democracy?    Personal  freedom,  all  citizens  en- 
joying the  same  rights  socially  and  before  the  law     Do 
you  enjoy  the  same  rights  as  the  white  people  do  in  Amer- 
ica the  land  of  freedom  and  democracy?    Or,  are  yoTnot 
rather  treated  over  there  as  second-dass  citizensrCan 
you  go  into  a  restaurant  where  white  people  dine?    Can 
you  get  a  seat  in  the  theatre  where  white  people  sit?    Can 
you  get  a  berth  or  a  seat  in  the  railroad  car,  or  can  you 
even  ride  m  the  South  in  the  same  street  ca^  with  wWte 
people?    And  how  about  the  law?    Is  lynching  and  the 
most  horrible  crimes  connected  therewith,  a  lawful  pro- 
ceeding m  a  democratic  country? 

+v     '7"^.'  ^"  }^'^  ''  ^"^'""^^^  different  in  Germany,  where 
they  do  hke  colored  people,  where  they  treat  them  as  gen- 
tlemen and  as  white  men,  and  quite  a  number  of  colored 
people  have  fine  positions  in  business  in  Berlin  and  other 
German  cities.    Why,  then,  fight  the  Germans  only  for 
the  benefit  of  Wall  Street  robbers  and  to  protect  the  mil- 
hons  they  have  loaned  to  the  English,  French  and  Italians? 
You  have  been  made  the  tool  of  the  egotistical  and  rapa- 
cious rich  m  England  and  America  and  there  is  nothing 
m  the  whole  game  for  you  but  broken  bones,  horrible 
wounds,  spoiled  health,  or  death.    No  satisfaction  whatever 
will  you  get  out  of  this  unjust  war.    You  have  never  seen 
Gernaany.    So  you  are  fools  if  you  allow  people  to  make 
you  hate  us.    Come  over  and  see  for  yourself.    Let  those 
do  the  fighting  who  make  the  profits  out  of  the  war.    Don't 
allow  them  to  use  you  as  cannon  fodder.    To  carry  a  gun 
in  this  service  is  not  an  honor,  but  a  shame.    Throw  it 
away  and  come  over  to  the  German  lines.    You  wiU  lind 
friends  who  will  help  you  along." 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 


589 


THE  PROPAGANDA  FAILS. 

Such  a  piece  of  infamous  treachery  scarcely  deserves 
comment;  for,  if  the  Negro  had  been  the  least  inclined  to 
be  a  traitor,  he  could  not  forget  the  atrocious  treatment 
accorded  the  black  man  in  the  African  colonies  controlled 
by  Germany.  For  the  Negro  well  remembers  the  treach- 
ery of  von  Trotha,  who  invited  the  Herero  chiefs  to  come 
in  and  make  peace  and  promptly  shot  them  in  cold  blood. 
And  the  words  of  his  cruel  and  inhuman  '^Extermmation 
Order"  directing  that  every  Herero  man,  woman,  child 
or  babe  was  to  be  killed  and  no  prisoners  taken.  All  of 
which  had  the  sanction  of  Berlin. 

But,  aside  from  his  intimate  knowledge  of  German 
treachery  and  duplicity,  a  still  higher  principle  inspired 
the  Negro;  for  to  forget  the  loyalty  to  his  own  native 
country  in  this  hour  of  trial  and  darkness  would  be  scan- 
dalous and  shameful  and  would  blacken  the  Negro  in  the 
eyes  of  the  whole  world.    Of  this  class  of  treachery,  the 
Negro  is  absolutely  incapable.    They  have  endured  some 
of  the  greatest  sacrifices  and  humilations  that  could  be 
demanded  of  a  people,  but,  they  always  have  kept  before 
them  ideals,  foimded  on  loyalty  and  devotion  to  duty,  and 
never,  in  their  darkest  days,  have  they  sought  to  gain  their 
ends  by  treasonable  means.    For  the  path  of  treason  is 
still  an  unknown  path  to  the  Negro.    Their  duty  and  their 
conscience  alike  bade  them  be  faithful  and  true  to  their 
government  and  their  flag  in  this  hour  of  darkness  and 

trouble. 

NUMBER  OF  NEGROES  ENGAGED. 

During  the  World  War,  there  were  approximately  ten 
thousand  Negroes  who  voluntarily  enlisted  in  the  navy  of 
the  United  States.  They  were  distributed  throughout  the 
various  ratings  of  the  enlisted  status.  Many  of  them  were 
chief  petty  officers  who  had  rendered  years  of  faithful 


590  THE  NEGBO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

se^ice  and  were  regarded  as  experts  in  their  profession, 
and,  consequently,  played  an  important  part  in  the  organ- 
ization and  function  of  the  battle  units.  In  the  transport 
service,  his  powerful  physical  endurance  and  strength  made 
hun  a  determining  factor  in  the  Herculean  efforts  to  sup- 
ply men,  munitions,  and  provisions  for  the  battlefields  of 
France.  In  order  to  appreciate  the  magnitude  of  his  serv- 
ce,  let  us  briefly  note  the  following  facts: 

Two  miUion  American  fighting  men  were  safely 
landed  in  France.  To  do  this  the  transport  force  of  the 
Atlantic  fleet  of  the  United  States  had  to  be  utilized.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  the  transport  force  was  small, 
but  It  now  comprises  twenty-four  cruisers,  forty-two  troop 
transports,  and  scores  of  other  vessels,  manned  by  three 
thousand  officers  and  forty-one  thousand  enlisted  men,  two 
thousand  of  whom  are  Negroes. 

PERIL  AND  DANGER. 

To  think  of  the  peril  and  dangers  of  this  service  at 
best,  even  m  peace  times,  seamanship  is  a  comfortless  and 
cheerless  calling.    But  in  war,  to  the  ordinary  perils  of 
the  sea  are  added  unusual  hardships  which  reach  their 
maximum  in  the  dangers  and  perils  of  the  war  zone-the 
attack  without  warning  of  the  invisible  foe  whose  presence 
is  too  frequently  known  only  by  a  terrific  explosion,  which 
casts  the  hapless  crew  adrift  on  surging  seas,  leagues  from 
a  friendly  shore.    Think  of  the  terrific  strain  under  which 
these  men  perform  their  perilous  tasks.     Gun  crews  on 
continuous  duty,  ever  ready  with  the  shot  that  might  save 
the  ship;  the  black  men  below  in  the  fire  room,  expecting 
every  moment  to  receive  the  fatal  blast  which  would  entrap 
them  in  a  hideous  death;  the  watch,  ceaseless  in  its  vigil 
by  day  and  by  night,  peering  through  the  darkness  and 
the  mist,  conscious  that  upon  their  alertness  depended  the 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  591 

lives  of  all.  Yet  under  these  conditions  of  unprecedented 
hirdsbips  every  black  nian  performed  bis  duty  with  tbe 
bigbest  degree  of  courage  and  self-sacrifice. 

We  will  mention  one  of  tbe  many  mstance  of  tbe 
matcbless  intrepidity  of  tbe  men  engaged  in  tbis  bazard- 
Ts  service.    In  September,  1918,  a  transport  with  sev- 
eral hundred  sick  and  wounded  soldiers  on  board    was 
torpedoed  when  a  short  distance  out  from  Brest.    Thirty- 
six  men  of  tbe  fire  room  met  their  death  m  the  fire  and 
steam  and  boiling  water  of  tbe  stokehold.    With  two  com- 
paZents  flooded,  their  comrades  dead  and  dymg,wih 
a  seeming  certainty  that  tbe  attack  would  continue,  which 
would  mean  that  every  man  in  tbe  compartment  where  the 
torpedo  struck  would  be  dro^vned  or  burned  to  death    Tet 
despite  all,  when  volunteers  were  called  for  to  man  the 
stm  undamaged  furnaces  to  keep  up  steam  for  the  run 
back  to  port,  every  man  in  tbe  force  stepped  forward  and 
said  be  was  ready  to  go  below. 

HARD  AND   GRINDING  WORK. 

There  was  nothing  spectacular  about  this  grinding 
duty     Winter  and  summer,  by  day  and  by  night,  m  the 
fo/and  in  tbe  rain  and  in  the  ice,  it  demanded  constant 
vigilance,  unceasing  toil,  and  extreme  endurance.     The 
work  of  tbis  dangerous  service  was  endless  and  its  hard- 
ships and  hazards  are  barely  realized.    During  tbe  winter 
storms  of  tbe  north  Atlantic  the  maddened  seas  all  but 
eneulf ed  these  tiny  but  staunch  transports,  when  for  days 
,     they  breasted  tbe  fury  of  tbe  gale  and  defied  tbe  very  ele- 
ments in  their  struggle  for  mastery.    No  sleep  then  for 
the  tired  crew;  no  hot  food;  no  dry  clothes.    Yet  despite  it 
all  with  each  hour  perhaps  tbe  last,  with  death  stalking 
through  tbe  staggering  hulls,  not  a  man-black  or  white - 
to  tbe  everlasting  glory  of  the  American  navy,  not  a  man 


^92  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

but  felt  himself  especially  favored  in  being  assigned  that 
duty. 

CEASELESS   VIGILANCE. 

Since  this  country  entered  the  war  practically  all  the 
enemy's  naval  forces,  except  the  submarines,  have  been 
blockaded  in  his  ports  by  the  naval  forces  of  the  Allies, 
and  there  has  been  no  opportunity  for  naval  engagements 
of  a  major  character.    The  enemy's  submarines,  however, 
formed  a  continual  menace  to  the  safety  of  all  our  trans- 
ports and  shipping,  necessitating  the  use  of  every  effective 
means  and  the  utmost  vigilance  for  the  protection  of  our 
vessels.    Concentrated  attacks  were  made  by  enemy  TJ-boats 
on  the  ships  that  carried  the  very  first  contingent  to  Europe, 
and  all  that  have  gone  since  have  faced  this  liability  to 
attack.     Our  destroyers  and  patrol  vessels,  upon  all  of 
which  Negroes  served  in  addition  to  convoy  duty,  have 
waged  an  unceasing  offensive  warfare  against  the  subma- 
rine.   In  spite  of  all  this,  our  naval  losses  have  been  grati- 
fyingly  small.    Not  one  American  troop  ship,  as  previously 
stated,  has  been  torpedoed  on  the  way  to  France,  and  but 
three,  the  Antilles,  President  Lincoln,  and  the  Covington, 
were  sunk  on  the  return  voyage. 

GRATIFYING  RESULTS  OF  NAVAL  ACTIVITY. 

Only  three  fighting  ships  were  lost  as  a  result  of  enemy 
action— the  patrol  ship  Alcedo,  a  converted  yacht  sunk -.off 
the  coast  of  France,  November  5,  1917;  the  torpedo  boat 
destroyer  Jacoh  Jones,  sunk  off  the  British  coast,  December 
B,  1917,  and  the  cruiser  San  Diego,  sunk  off  Fire  Island, 
off  the  New  York  coast,  July  18,  1918,  striking  a  mine  sup- 
posedly set  adrift  by  a  German  submarine.  The  transport 
Finland  and  the  destroyer  Cassin,  which  were  torpedoed, 
reached  port  and  were  soon  repaired  and  placed  back  in 
service.    The  transport  Mount  Vernon  struck  by  a  torpedo 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 


593 


on  September  5th,  proceeded  to  port  under  its  own  steam 
and  was  repaired. 

The  most  serious  loss  of  life  due  to  enemy  activity  was 
the  loss  of  the  coast  guard  cutter  Tampa,  with  all  on  board, 
in  Bristol  Channel,  England,  on  the  night  of  September 
26  1918     The  Tampa,  which  was  doing  escort  duty,  had 
gone  ahead  of  the  convoy.    Vessels  following  heard  the 
explosion,  but  when  they  reached  the  vicinity  there  were 
only  bits  of  floating  wreckage  to  show  where  the  ship  had 
gone  down.   Not  one  of  the  one  hundred  and  eleven  officers 
and  enlisted  men  of  her  crew  were  rescued;  and  though  it 
is  believed  she  was  sunk  by  a  torpedo  from  an  enemy 
submarine,  the  exact  manner  in  which  the  vessel  met  its 
fate  may  never  be  known.    Among  the  number  of  men  lost 
on  this  vessel  were  at  least  a  score  of  black  men.    Taking 
into  consideration  all  the  dangers  and  difficulties  attend- 
ing this  service  of  the  transport  force,  the  comparatively 
light  casualty  list  is  eloquent  testimony  of  an  efficient  per- 
sonnel organized  and  trained  under  a  wise  administrative 
command. 

THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  MERCHANT  MARINE. 
Now  let  us  briefly  consider  the  contribution  of  the 
Negro  to  the  construction  and  development  of  the  merchant 
marine,  a  force  vitally  essential  to  the  succesful  prosecu- 
tion of  the  war.    When  America  entered  the  war,  it  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  her  merchant  marine  was  insignifi- 
cant; and,  to  respond  to  the  urgent  appeal  of  France  and 
her  allies  to  hurry  men,  provisions  and  munitions,  a  gigan- 
tic task  of  constructing  the  necessary  ships  stared  her  in 
the  face.    For  the  Germans  at  this  time  were  making  a  des- 
perate effort  to  starve  England,  France  and  the  other  Allies 
•  by  destroying  their  commerce  with  America  and  the  world, 
by  a  resort,  as  was  brazenly  announced  to  the  world,  to  a 


594  THE  NEQBO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

heartless  campaign  of  ruthless  submarine  warfare.  There- 
fore, the  very  first  efforts  of  the  United  States  were  to 
use  every  power  of  the  navy  to  destroy  and  neutralize  the 
effect  of  the  lurking  submarine  and  enter  upon  a  policy 
ot  ship  construction,  which  in  its  gigantic  magnitude  and 
comprehensiveness  was  unprecedented. 

,  t  ^?^f  ^°^''' J"  "^^'"^  *^^  Negro  generously  contrib- 
i,'l      the  effectiveness  of  this  policy  is  well  known  to 
all  the  world.    For  the  very  first  record  breaking  riveting 
feat  was  won  by  a  Negro  crew  at  Sparrows  Point,  Mary- 
land.   His  ability  in  this  field  of  endeavor  was  ably  dem- 
onstrated m  all  of  the  great  industrial  plants  in  which  his 
services  were  so  generously  utilized.    Heretofore,  he  had 
been  debarred  from  identification  in  the  capacity  as  a  la- 
borer in  these  plants;  but,  now,  that  war  in  all  of  its  des- 
peration was  threatening  the  very  existence  of  the  country, 
the  barriers  of  prejudice  gave  way  and  he  again  proved 
the  falsity  of  the  statement  that  the  Negro  could  not  handle 
machinery.     The  managers  of  great  shipbuilding  plants 
along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  testified  before  the  Federal 
Shipbuilding  Labor  Adjustment  Board  that  Negroes  had 
worked  on  machines,  gauged  to  as  fine  a  degree  as  one 
one-thousandth  of  an  inch  with  perfect  satisfaction. 

WONDERFUL  ACHIEVEMENTS. 

To  the  achievements  of  the  navy,  in  erecting  great 
training  camps,  destroyer  and  aviation  bases,  hospitals,  in 
traimng  thousands  of  men  for  oversea  duty,  the  army  of 
merchant  ships,  the  building  of  a  vast  fleet  of  smaller  ves- 
sels, the  construction  of  great  warehouses  at  home  and 
abroad,  the  manufacture  of  heavy  guns  and  their  mounts, 
AA  P/^i"^*'""  of  ponder  and  technical  ordnance  must  be 
added  the  most  spectacular  achievement  of  all-the  repair 
of  interned  German  ships,  in  all  of  which  the  Negro  par- 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  595 

ticipated  with  zeal  and  enthusiasm  and  in  many  instances 
won  the  admiration  and  commendation  of  his  superior 

officers. 

When  these  vessels,  many  of  them  of  the  largest  type 
of  trans-Atlantic  liners,  were  taken  over  by  our  govern- 
ment, it  was  found  that  the  machinery  of  several  had  been 
seriously  damaged  by  the  maliciously  planned  and  care- 
fully executed  sabotage  of  the  crews.    The  principal  injury 
was  to  the  cylinders  and  other  parts  of  the  engmes,  and, 
as  the  passenger  ships  were  potent  factors  in  the  trans- 
portation of  troops,  their  immediate  repair  was  of  vital 
necessity.    Nothing  daunted  by  the  magnitude  of  the  past, 
our  navy  undertook  the  repair  of  these  broken  cylinders 
by  employing  the  system  of  electric  welding,  and  so  suc- 
cessful was  this  work,  in  which  scores  of  black  men  were 
utilized,  that  during  all  the  months  of  service  in  which 
these  vessels  have  been  engaged,  not  a  single  defect  has 
developed. 

HONOR  TO  WHOM  HONOR  IS  DUE. 
All  honor  to  the  officers  who  risked  their  professional 
reputations  and  carried  forward  to  complete  success  and 
accomplishment,  which  expert  engine  manufacturers  con- 
sidered impossible;  and  all  honor  to  the  patience,  zeal, 
industry  and  intelligence  of  the  noble  band  of  laborers 
whose  persistence  and  ceaseless  endeavor  made  possible  the 
accompUshment  of  these  world-renowned  examples  of  con- 
structive and  inventive  "American  genius. 

Let  us  not  forget  the  mighty  and  tireless  work  of  those 
in  the  department  whose  efforts  were  as  assiduous  as  their 
success  was  complete.  From  the  humblest  yeowoman  up- 
ward to  the  secretary  of  the  navy,  through  the  bureaus  and 
their  chiefs,  all  were  animated  by  the  same  spirit  of  energy, 
of  foresight,  and  determination  to  place  the  fleet  on  the 
highest  basis  of  efficiency  and  strength.    In  this  generous 


596 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 


and  sacrificing  spirit,  black  men  and  black  women,  work- 
mg  side  by  side,  shared  in  proportion  and  never  wavered 
or  faltered  in  the  task  of  measuring  up  to  the  expectations 
o±  those  whose  confidence  and  regard  are  so  highly 
esteemed.  *    "^ 

GENEROUS  RECOGNITION  OF  SERVICE. 
Another  just  and  appreciated  evidence  of  the  generous 
recognition  with  which  the  consistency  and  faithfulness  of 
his  service  was  awarded,  may  be  noted  in  the  organization 
and  development  of  the  muster  roll  section  of  the  bureau 
of  navigation  of  the  navy  department.    Owing  to  a  wide- 
spread demand  upon  the  part  of  the  citizens  of  the  coun- 
try shortly  after  we  entered  the  war,  for  accurate  and 
specific  information  concerning  the  whereabouts  of  their 
kinsmen  in  the  naval  service,  a  demand  which  it  was  prac- 
tically impossible  to  comply  with  in  view  of  the  ancient 
methods  m  vogue  at  the  time  in  the  file  section  of  the 
bureau  of  navigation,  and  in  further  view  of  the  fact  of 
the  unprecedented  expansion  of  the  enlisted  personnel  of 
the  navy,  the  secretary  of  the  navy  found  it  absolutely 
necessary  to  convene  a  conference  of  all  the  officials  who 
had  any  positive  and  direct  knowledge  as  to  the  details 
and  operation  of  the  file  section. 

This  was  done  in  order  to  evolve  out  of  the  multiplicity 
of  seasoned  counsel  a  competent  and  successful  solution  of 
the  very  important  and  grave  problem  which  so  heavily 
weighed  upon  the  mind  of  the  civil  population  of  the  coun- 
try, when  they  were  offering  freely  upon  its  altar  their 
most  treasured  blood,  as  a  precious  sacrifice.  Indeed,  so 
important  and  so  urgent  became  the  necessity  for  an  im- 
mediate and  satisfactory  solution  of  this  problem  that  there 
was  no  evasion  in  a  high  browed  manner  of  any  creditable 
source  of  needed  information.  Accordingly,  the  bureau  of 
navigation,  in  obedience  to  the  inevitable  expansion  neces- 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  697 

sitated  in  all  the  bureaus  of  the  navy  by  the  exigencies 
of  war,  determined  to  organize  and  operate  a  muster  roll 
section,  charged  primarily  with  the  duty  of  apprehending 
the  present  whereabouts  of  every  man  of  the  enlisted  per- 
sonnel in  a  systematic  and  scientific  manner. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  MUSTER  ROLL  SECTION. 

The  execution  of  the  very  essential  duty  of  chief  of 
the  muster  roll  section  was  entrusted  to  John  T.  Rishcr,  a 
colored  man,  to  whom  was  given  plenary  power  to  engage 
and  select  his  corps  of  assistants.    Of  course,  Mr.  Eisher 
determined  immediately  in  the  face  of  all  opposing  prece- 
dents, to  fully  utilize  the  services,  abilities  and  talents  of 
the  colored  youth  of  the  country,  upon  whose  educational 
development  millions  of  dollars  had  been  spent  in  the  past. 
In  consequence,  more  than  a  dozen  young  colored  women 
have  been  engaged  in  the  capacity  of  yeowomen  in  this 
muster  roll  section.    This  is  quite  a  novel  experiment,  as 
it  is  the  fipst  time  in  the  history  of  the  navy  of  the  IJnited 
States  that  colored  women  have  been  employed  in  any 
clerical  capacity.    And  it  may  be  noted  that  while  many 
young  colored  men  have  enlisted  in  the  mess  branch  of 
the  service,  it  was  reserved  to  young  colored  women  to 
invade  succesfully  the  yeoman  branch,  thereby  establishing 
a  precedent.    There  are  all  cool,  clear-headed  and  well- 
poised,  evincing  at  all  times,  in  the  language  of  a  white 
chief  yeowoman:   'A  tidiness  and  appropriate  demeanor 
both  on  and  off  duty  which  the  girls  of  the  white  race  might 
do  well  to  emulate."    The  work  of  this  section  has  proven 
highly  efficient  and  satisfactory,  as  the  plans  in  vogue 
there  under  its  modern  management  are  both  scientific  and 
accurate.    Many  of  the  superior  officials  have  scrutinized 
the  experiment  very  closely  and  are  a  unit  in  the  sincerity 
of  their  admiration  of  its  success  and  effectiveness. 


558  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

PERSONNEL  OF  THE  MUSTER  ROLL  SECTION. 

The  personnel  of  the  muster  roll  section  is  divided  in 
three  classes,  to  wit: 

(a)  Civil  service  employes,  who  are  Messrs.  Albert 
D.  Smith  of  Texas;  David  0.  Johnson  of  Texas;  George 
W.  Beasley  of  Massachusetts,  and  W.  T.  Howard  of  Louisi- 
ana. AH  of  the  above  have  had  years  of  valuable  experi- 
ence and  are  considered  expert  in  aU  matters  pertaining 
to  the  enlisted  personnel  of  the  navy  of  the  United  States. 

(b)  Teowomen,  who  are  as  follows:  Misses  Armelda 
H.  Greene  of  Mississippi;  Pocahontas  A.  Jackson  of  Miss- 
Ksippi;  Catherine  E.  Finch  of  Mississippi;  Fannie  A 
Foote  of  Texas;  Euth  A.  WeUbom  of  Washington,  D  0  • 
Olga  F.  Jones,  Washington,  D.  C;  Sarah  Davis  of  Mary- 
land; Sarah  E.  Howard  of  Mississippi;  Marie  B.  MitcheU 
Washington,  D.  C;  Anna  G.  Smallwood,  Washington,  D. 
C  ;  Maud  C.  WiUiams  of  Texas;  Carroll  E.  Washington  of 
Mississippi;  Joseph  B.  Washington  of  Mississippi;  Inez 
B.  Mcintosh  of  Mississippi. 

(c)  Young  men  of  the  naval  reserve  force,  who  are- 
Messrs.  William  R.  Minor  of  Virginia;  L.  D.  Boyd,  Brown 
Boyd  of  Virginia-;  Minter  G.  Edwards  of  Mississippi;  Fred 
Johe  of  Louisiana ;  M.  T.  Malvan,  Washington,  D  C  •  IJ  S 
Brooks;  Thomas  C.  Bowler;  Albert  L  Gaskins,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C;  Daniel  Vickers  of  Alabama,  and  Mr.  FuUer. 

SIGNING  OF  THE  ARMISTICE. 

On  November  11, 1918,  there  came  that  long  expected 
and  welcome  message  announcing  to  an  anxious  and  war- 
weary  world  that  an  armistice  had  been  concluded,  by  the 
terms  of  which  actual  hostilities  were  to  cease. 

On  November  21,  1918,  five  American  dreadnaughts 
were  in  that  far-flung  double  line  of  Allied  ships,  through 
which  passed  in  surrender  the  dreadnaughts,  cruisers  and 


THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY.  599 

destroyers  of  the  second  most  powerful  navy  j^  tbe  worid. 
When  Admiral  Beatty  sent  his  famous  signal.     The  Ger 
man  flag  is  to  be  hauled  down  at  3:57  and  is  not  to  be 
hoisted  fgain  without  permission,"  the  work  of  our  navy 
as  a  battle  unit  in  the  war  zone  was  oyer.    And  the  tol- 
lowing  tribute  from  Gen.  John  J.  Pershing,  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces  m  France, 
was  sent  to  the  commander  of  the  United  States  naval 
forces:  "Permit  me  to  send  to  the  force  commander,  the 
officers,  and  men  of  the  American  navy,  in  European  wa- 
ters, the  most  cordial  greetings  of  the  American  Expedi- 
tionary Force.    The  bond  which  joins  together  all  men  ot 
American  blood  has  been  mightily  strengthened  and  deep- 
ened by  ihe  rough  hand  of  war. 

"Those  of  us  who  are  privileged  to  serve  m  the  army 
and  navy  are  to  one  another  as  brothers.    Spaces  of  land 
and  sea  are  nothing  where  a  common  purpose  binds.    We 
are  so  dependent  one  upon  another  that  the  honor,  the 
fame,  the  exploits  of  the  one  are  the  honor,  the  fame,  the 
exploits  of  the  other.    If  the  enemy  should  dare  to  leave 
his  safe  harbor  and  set  his  ships  in  battle  array  no  cheers 
would  be  more  ringing,  as  you  and  our  Allied  fleets  move 
to  meet  him,  than  those  of  the  American  Expeditionary 
Forces  in  France.    We  have  unshaken  confidence  in  you 
and  are  assured  that  when  we  stand  on  the  threshold  of 
peace  your  record  will  be  one  worthy  of  your  traditions. 

Eloquent  and  memorable,  indeed,  are  these  beautiful 
sentiments  expressed  in  behalf  of  every  man,  black  and 
white  who  had  the  rare  good  fortune  to  be  a  participant  m 
the  conflicts  of  these  illustrious  and  ever  memorable  times. 
They  should  be  indelibly  carved  upon  the  heart  and  soul 
of  every  loval  citizen,  whose  anxiety  to  serve  his  day  and 
generation  easily  outvies  all  other  sentiments  of  which  he 
is  capable. 


600  THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  NAVY. 

RETURN  OF  THE  VICTORIOUS  FLEET. 

Out  of  the  mist  and  the  snow  of  the  morning  of 
December  26,  a  great  battle  fleet  entered  the  harbor  of 
New  York  and  in  the  majesty  of  its  power  steamed  past 
the  Statue  of  Liberty.  It  came  as  a  messenger  of  a  con- 
flict won,  a  silent  victory,  but  a  triumph  as  complete  and 
overwhelming  as  any  ever  won  by  the  American  navy. 

Too  high  a  tribute  can  not  be  paid  the  black  men  of 
the  American  navy,  who  faced  the  dangers  of  war  and  the 
perils  of  the  sea  with  exalted  courage  and  unfaltering  de- 
termination. Their  loyalty  and  patriotism  have  never  been 
questioned,  their  valor  and  heroism  never  doubted.  By 
their  deeds  they  have  added  new  lustre  to  the  glorious 
annals  of  the  American  navy  and  have  fully  demonstrated 
that  the  color  of  the  skin  is  but  a  feeble  indication  of  the 
depth  of  love  and  affection  with  which  the  heart  and  soul 
of  every  loyal  black  man  of  America  beats  in  sympathy 
with  the  loftiness  of  her  ideals.  j    f     j 


CHAPTEEXXXm 

THE  OLD  ILLINOIS  8tli  EEGIMENT 
The  Training  Camp-^The  Black  Devils— They  Died 
That  Our  Eepublio  May  Live— The  Last  Soldiers  To 
Cease  Fighting  —  Taking  The  Bit  Between  Their 
Teeth-^he  Hindenburg  Line  Could  Not  Stop  Them 
—They  Cross  the  Ailette  Canal— Desperate  De^ds  of 
Daring— 0^-E  Man  Eouts  a  Machine  Gun  Crew— The 
Band  Played  On— Summary  of  Deeds  of  The  Illinois 
Eighth 

At  the  beautiful  city  of  Eockf  ord,  Illinois,  was  located  Camp 
Grant  where  thousands  of  Negro  recruits  gathered  from  cities 
and  factories,  farms  and  plantations  of  our  country,  were  given 
the  needed  intensive  training  to  fit  them  to  sustain  the  glorious 
traditions  of  the  American  soldiers.    We  take  pride  in  all  our 
soldiers— never  once  did  they  retreat  but  carried  Old  Glory  ever 
onward  until  the  armistice  of  November  11,  1918. 
*  ^  THE  BLACK  DEVILS ' ' 
The  old  Illinois  8th  Eegiment  was  one  of  these  colored  units 
which  henceforth  will  be  referred  to  whenever  the  heroic  deeds 
of  this  war  are  mentioned.    The  Prussian  guards  gave  them 
a  name  which  tells  us  of  the  respect  and  fear  they  inspire'd. 
They  were  **The  Black  Devils."     The  guards  were  seasoned 
veterans  who  had  parti(3ipated  in  the  fiercest  fighiting  of  the 
war,  yet  these  Negro  heroes  of  the  West  did  not  falter  before 
them.    They  were  brigaded  with  the  choicest  troops  of  France 
and  fought  by  their  side  through  the  final  stages  of  the  war. 
By  them  they  were  given  a  name  indicative  of  the  respect  and 
confidence,  their  soldierly  bearing  and  actions  inspired.     To 
the  French  they  were  the  ** Partridges,"  the  proudest  game  bird 

X  lOi  pages  of  unnumbered  halftone  pictures  add  to  text  should  maJC«  this  page  705. 

70S 


706  THE    OLD  ILLINOIS  8th   EEGIMENT 

of  Europe,  and  when  the  decimated  ranks  of  the  regiment  para- 
ded before  cheering  thousands  on  their  return,  there  marched 
m  their  ranks,  twenty-two  men  wearing  the  American  Distin- 
guished Service  Cross  while  sixty-eight  others  were  decorated 
with  the  French  "Croix  de  Guerre." 

THEY  DIED  THAT  OUE  EEPUBLIC  MIGHT  LIVE 
The  regiment  went  to  France  with  approximately  2,500  men 
from  Chicago  and  Illinois;  they  came  back  with  1,260.  Those 
figures  convey  an  eloquent  story  of  suffering  and  death.  Nearly 
a  hundred  were  MUed  in  battle.  They  were  sleeping  on  the  shell 
scarred  fields  of  France.  Many  others  are  enrolled  in  the  great 
army  of  maimed  heroes,  who  however,  are  facing  the  future  with 
cahn  courage,  though  many  of  them  are  deprived  of  arms  or 
hmbs,  or  possess  bodies  cruelly  disfigured  by  shot  and  shell,  with 
physical  health  wrecked  as  a  result  of  hardship  in  trenches,  or 
deadly  gas  inhaled. 

THE  LAST  SOLDIEES  TO  CEASE  FIGHTING 
The  old  8th  probably  made  the  last  capture  of  the  war.  The 
morning  of  November  11,  they  were  with  their  French  comrades 
m  Belgium.  The  objective  given  them  to  attain  that  day  was 
not  arduous  and  so,  having  achieved  the  same,  the  boys  simply 
kept  on  going.  The  French  division  commander  sent  a  messenger 
to  the  Colonel  in  command  to  cease  firing  at  11  a.  m.,  but  byt 
the  time  the  messenger  caught  up  with  the  rushing  troops  it 
was  ten  minutes  after  the  Huns  had  ceased  firing  on  the  Western 
front,  and  those  colored  boys  were  just  putting  the  finishing 
touches  on  one  of  the  neatest  captures  of  the  war-a  German 
army  train  of  fifty  wagons. 

TAKING  THE  BIT  BETWEEN  THEIE  TEETH 

Their  commander  had  one  criticism  to  make  which,  however, 

will  not  be  a  mark  against  the  old  8th:    "My  greatest  difficulty 

was  m  keeping  my  boys  from  going  on  after  they  had  obtained 

their  objective,"  he  complains.    The  boys  had  formed  the  habit 


THE   OLD  ILLINOIS  Sth  REGIMENT  707 

of  "getting  there''  so  strongly  that  inertia  kept  them  going. 
Discipline  in  this  respect  seems  to  have  been  lacking  among  the 
American  soldiers  generally.  We  heard  this  same  complaint 
at  Chateau  Thierry,  at  St.  Mihiel  and  in  the  Argonne.  These 
doughboys,  like  all  genuine  Americans,  evidently  believed  it 
good  policy  while  getting,  to  get  enough. 

FIRST  AS  WELL  AS  LAST 
It  will  be  noticed  the  8th  was  among  the  last  to  quit  doing 
things,  but  they  were  among  the  first  to  start  thmgs  going.   Laon 
is  an  important  city  of  France  about  eighty  miles  northeast  of 
Paris.   For  four  long  years  it  remained  in  German  hands.   Allied 
troops  recaptured  the  town  October  13,  1918.    At  the  head  of 
the  column  of  troops  entering  the  city  was  a  colored  sergeant 
of  this  regiment  carrying  a  French  flag  while,  not  to  be  outdone 
in  courtesy  a  French  Sergeant  walked  beside  him  carrying  the 
Stars  and  Stripes.     The  French  people  of  Laon  knelt  by  the 
roadside  and  kissed  the  hand  of  this  colored  sergeant  of  the  8th 
regiment.    The  torture  of  four  years  was  over  and  they  saw  in 
this  proud  young  soldier  a  representative  of  the  Great  Republic 
of  the  West  rescuing  France  from  the  rapacious  soldiers  of 
Germany. 
THE  HINDENBURG  LINE  COULD  NOT  STOP  THEM 
The  Hindenburg  Line  was  the  most  celebrated  battle  line  of 
history.   It  passed  through  Laon,  LaFere,  St.  Quentin,  Cambrai 
and  Lille,  a  total  distance  of  about  ninety  miles.    Every  foot  of 
that  distance  was  fortified  with  such  massive  trenches,  supporting 
lines  of  trenches,  and  elaborate  lines  of  wire  entanglements  that 
it  was  supposed  to  be  impregnable.    Nothing  known  to  warfare 
ever  equalled  such  strong  defenses.    Every  avenue  of  approach 
was  defended  by  machine  guns  and  heavy  artillery,  and  in  the 
trenches  and  at  easy  supporting  distances  to  the  rear  were 
massed  the  best  soldiers  of  Germany,  yet  that  line  was  crossed 


708  THE   OLD  ILLINOIS  8th  EEGIMENT 

by  the  Allies  September  29  and  30  and  the  Illinois  Negro  regi- 
ment was  among  those  that  accomplished  that  feat. 
THEY  CEOSS  THE  AILETTE  CANAL 
To  accomplish  this  they  traversed  an  open  ground  through 
a  German  barrage  fire.    A  barrage  fire  is  such  a  focusing  of 
sho    and  shell  that  it  forms  a  veritable  descending  curtain  of 

the  Ailette  Canal,  m  which  wire  entanglements  had  been  placed. 
Pontoon  bridges  were  thrown  across  and  so  the  Hindenburg  Line 
yas  reached  and  crossed.  The  regiment  had  two  hmidred  cas- 
ualties as  a  result  of  that  frightful  but  victorious  advance  The 
smashing  at  that  line  was  final  notice  to  Germany  that  the  end 
was  at  hand.  Colored  soldiers  of  this  great  republic  with  but 
a  few  months  of  training  had  forced  their  way  up  to  and  through 
he  most  strongly  fortified  military  line  in  all  history,  against 
the  desperate  defense  of  veterans  with  years  of  experLce,  the 
supposed  unconquerable  soldiers  of  Germany. 

DESPERATE  DEEDS  OF  DARING 
Where  all  with  calm  courage  faced  death  it  is  almost  out  of 
pace  to  mention  individual  cases,  but  some  deeds  of  daring  better 
illustrate  the  desperate  chances  taken  when  duty  called.    One 
regimental  surgeon  went  out  in  No  Man's  Land  amid  a  hail  of 
onachme  gun  bullets-it  seemed  sure  death  to  face  guns  sending 
a  spray  of  bullets  searching  the  entire  area-and  calmly  attended 
wounded  men  where  they  lay  knowing  that  probably  every  minute 
would  be  his  last.    One  D.  S.  C.  was  bestowed  on  a  private  whose 
ife  had  been  sacrificed  in  the  vain  attempt  to  get  a  message 
through  the  inferno  of  fire.    He  was  off  duty  at  the  time,  but  that 
did  not  matter.    That  message  ought  to  go  through.    He  was 
blown  to  pieces  in  the  attempt.    But  when  he  failed  another 

It       Z    v'''''^  ^""^^"^-    ^"  ^''  "  ^'^™  '^"^  °"'y  ^i^-hteen 
years  old.    You  would  not  have  noticed  him  among  the  workers 


THE   OLD  ILLINOIS  8th  EEGIMENT  709 

of  Chicago,  but  in  his  veins  flowed  the  blood  of  heroes.    He  got 
the  message  through  but  was  killed  trying  to  return. 

ONE  MAN  EOUTS  A  MACHINE  GUN  CEEW 
The  entire  regiment  was  being  held  up  because  a  machine 
gun  was  so  favorably  located  for  defense  that  it  could  incapaci- 
tate all  who  attempted  to  cross  its  line  of  fire.  Then  one  lone 
lieutenant  concluded  that  gun  had  done  enough  mischief,  anyway 
what  would  one  more  life  amount  to?  So  he  charged  it  single 
handed,  and  kindly  fate  as  if  in  admiration  of  his  daring  decreed 
his  safety.  The  gun  was  put  out  of  action,  the  advance  continued. 
Victory  came.  But  let  it  be  understood  these  instances  simply 
illustrate  the  spirit  that  enthused  all.  The  officers  were  in  the 
very  thick  of  the  fight,  leading—  not  following— the  men.  In 
that  battle  twenty-seven  officers  were  wounded  the  first  two 
hours. 

THE  BAND  PLAYED  ON 
The  band  of  the  *' Black  Devils*'  was  justly  celebrated.  After 
the  regiment  returned  to  the  state— after  their  part  in  the  great 
victory  was  history — that  band  toured  the  United  States,  and 
delighted  citizens  bore  testimony  to  the  inspiring  nature  of  its 
music.    But  the  music  amid  the  stern  realities  of  war  was  no 
less  helpful.     The  Colonel  testified:  *^That  band  was  every- 
where.   In  the  final  pursuit  when  we  had  the  Germans  running 
back  at  the  rate  of  thirty-five  kilometers  a  day,  that  band  with 
all  its  pack  and  instruments  would  keep  right  up  with  the  troops. ' ' 
But  if  other  duties  seemed  more  pressing,  the  musicians  were 
ready  to  do  what  they  could.    * '  Time  and  time  again, ' '  continued 
the  Colonel,  *'I  asked  its  members  to  serve  as  stretcher  bearers 
and  every  time  they  went  right  out  where  the  fighting  was  the 
hottest  and  brought  the  wounded  in. ' '   After  all  the  true  criterion 
of  service  is  to  do  what  ever  seems  necessary  and  right  to  do,  at 
the  moment,  not  counting  self.    It  is  not  so  much  great  occasions 
that  prove  men  but  faithfulness  in  duty. 


710  THE   OLD  ILLINOIS  8th  EEGIMENT 

BORROWING  ms  ORDERLY'S  EYES 

One  captain  found  that  while  trenches  were  real  life  saving 
inventions,  it  required  a  good  deal  of  time  to  traverse  their  wind- 
ings when  it  was  necessary  to  inspect  his  command.    So  he  got 
a  bicycle  and  raced  up  and  down  in  front  of  his  trenches  taking 
short  cuts  across  No  Man's  Land.    Of  course,  the  Germans  in 
the  opposite  line  all  went  gunning  for  this  daring  rider.    Ordin- 
arily it  was  death  to  expose  oneself  on  No  Man's  Land,  but  fate 
made  another  exception  in  his  case  and  they  *^  never  touched 
him,''  though  they  did  ruin  his  fine  bicycle  by  shooting  out  the 
spokes  of  its  wheels.    However,  a  mustard  gas  shell  **got  him" 
one  day.    He  was  temporarily  blinded  in  addition  to  suffering 
excruciating  pains.    Did  he  temporarily  retire!    No.  on  the  con- 
trary,  he  borrowed  his  orderly's  eyes,  in  other  words  had  him 
lead  him  around,  report  on  what  he  saw  while  the  disabled 
captain  issued  necessary  orders.    No  wonder  this  regiment  ac- 
quired appreciative  names  from  friend  and  foe. 
WHERE  THE  FATE  OF  CIVILIZATION  WAS  DECIDED 
That  part  of  France  where  the  great  battles  of  the  World 
War  were  fought  has  been  the  scene  of  battles  in  the  past  that 
profoundly  influenced  civilization.    In  the  valley  of  the  Somme 
nearly  fifteen  centuries  ago,  Clovis  laid  the  foundation  of  French 
history  by  defeating  the  Romans  in  a  world  deciding  battle  at 
Soissons,  and  ten  years  later  near  the  same  place  the  German 
forces  were  utterly  defeated  by  the  same  king.    More  than  five 
centuries  ago  the  great  Battle  of  Crecy,  between  the  English  and 
French  was  fought,  ending  in  a  great  victory  for  the  Black 
Prince.    But  none  of  the  ancient  battles  equalled  in  importance 
the  series  of  great  victories  won  by  the  Allied  force  over  those 
of  Germany  in  1918.    Modern  civilization  and  mediaeval  con- 
ceptions of  government  then  met  in  conflict.    The  point  we  wish 
all  to  notice  is,  that  Negro  soldiers  from  America  had  a  part  in 
these  great  battles  and  so  are  entitled  to  recognition  as  among 


THE   OLD   ILLINOIS  8th   REGIMENT  711 

those  that  saved  the  modern  world  when  threatened  with  an 
eclipse  akin  to  the  Dark  Ages  that  supervened  on  the  culture  of 

early  centuries. 

FIELDS  OF  GLORY 
It  is  well  to  bear  in  miad  some  of  the  crucial  fields  of  glory 
where  our  Negro  soldiers  upheld  the  best  traditions  of  our 
armies,  such  as  Chateau  Thierry,  Belleau  Woods,  St.  Mihiel  and 
the  Argonne.  The  Illinois  8th  was  conspicuous  m  many  of  these 
battles.  In  the  Argonne  against  superior  forces,  amid  a  baptism 
of  shell  fire  from  hidden  madhine  gunners,  they  advanced  to 
victory.  They  can  tell  us  of  scenes  where  their  comrades  fell, 
torn  by  shrapnel,  cruelly  wounded,  dying,  yet  with  their  Ust 
breath  singing  a  snatch  of  the  **Hymn  of  Freedom."  They  can 
tell  of  instances  in  which  these  dyiQg  heroes  urged  the  survivors 
on.    *'Go,  get  them"  was  their  parting  words. 

RETURN  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES 
Following  the  armistice  the  regiment  went  to  Brest,  France, 
whence  it  sailed  for  the  United  States,  February  2,  1919.  Most 
of  our  cities  had  become  accustomed  to  the  enthusiastic  greetings 
of  returned  soldiers.  None  were  given  a  more  enthusiastic  wel- 
come than  the  old  8th  Illraois.  Even  New  York,  where  most  of 
returning  soldiers  land,  grown  so  accustomed  to  marching  sol- 
diers just  from  Europe,  stopped  to  pay  signal  respect  to  these 
Negro  lads.  On  their  arms  were  service  stripes  and  in  the  pass- 
ing ranks  were  many  whom  France  had  delighted  to  honor.  In 
Chicago  the  entire  city  paused  m  its  business  to  shout  words  of 
welcome  to  those  who  had  earlier  served  them  in  many  forms— 
but  had  dropped  all  and  faced  death  that  Chicago,  New  York  and 
our  galaxy  of  states  might  be  among  the  great  democracies 
which  **made  the  world  safe  for  democracy." 

THIS  REGIMENT  A  REPRESENTATIVE  OF  ALL 
We  have  mentioned  the  8th  Illinois  especially  because  this 
regiment  was  gathered  principally  from  Chicago  and  the  West. 


712  THE   OLD  ILLINOIS  8th   REGIMENT 

Let  it  be  understood,  however,  that  it  is  simply  a  representa- 
tive regiment  of  Negro  soldiers.  They  deserve  well  of  our 
country.  They  too  crossed  the  seas  and  faced  death  with  a  smile, 
Why?  Because  their  country  called  them.  In  the  peaceful  days 
of  progress  ahead  we  are  sure  they  will  ever  remember  the  ex- 
periences of  war  and  by  acts  and  words  continue  to  labor  for 
the  good  of  our  country. 

SUMMARY  OF  DEEDS  OF  THE  ILLINOIS  8th 

Let  us  sum  up  in  an  easily  remembered  form  the  work  of 
this  regiment  in  France : 

Suffered  50  per  cent  casualties;  lost  ninety-five  men  and 
one  officer  killed  outright. 

Lost  only  one  prisoner  to  the  Germans  in  all  the  months  they 
fought. 

Captured  many  German  cannon  ana  many  German  machine 
guns. 

Participated  in  the  final  drive  against  the  Germans  on  the 
French  sector,  advancing  in  the  final  stages  of  the  war  as  far 
as  thirty-five  kilometers  in  one  day. 

Were  the  first  Allied  troops  to  enter  the  French  fortress  of 
Laon  when  it  was  wrested  from  the  Germans  after  four  years 
of  war. 

Won  twenty-two  American  Distinguished  Service  Crosses 
and  sixty-eight  French  War  Crosses. 

Fought  the  last  battle  of  the  war,  capturing  a  German  wagon 
train  of  fifty  wagons  and  crews,  a  half  hour  after  the  armistice 
went  into  effect. 

Refused  to  fraternize  with  the  Germans  even  after  the 
armistice  was  signed. 


THE  TERMS  IMPOSED  ON  GERMANY 


With  the  signing  of  that  armistice  terms,  November  ii,  1918,  the 
actual  fighting  in  the  world  war  came  to  an  end  but  the  statesmen  of  the 
allied  nations  were  faced  by  a  task  of  extraordinary  difficulty.  We  must 
remember  that  not  until  after  the  armistice  was  signed  was  any  of 
German  soil  exposed  to  invasion.  Her  cities  and  villages  were  intact, 
her  land  had  not  been  churned  by  exploding  shells.  Not  only  were  her 
factories  in  good  working  condition,  but  they  were  packed  with  costly 
machinery  stolen  from  French  and  Belgian  factories.  Her  very  churches 
were  adorned  with  masterpieces  of  art  from  plundered  cathedrals  of 
Western  Europe  and  innumerable  private  homes  possessed  articles  of 
furniture  and  bric-a-brac  stolen  from  wrecked  homes  in  France  and 
Belgium,  before  they  were  totally  destroyed.  War  on  the  part  of  Ger- 
many in  the  invaded  territories  of  the  allies  had  degenerated  into  brig- 
ondage. 

The  task  before  the  allied  statesmen  was  to  frame  conditions  of 
peace  that  would  make  it  impossible  for  Germany  to  devote  her  energies 
to  preparations  for  another  war  of  conquest.  That  in  itself  was  a  most 
difficult  thing  to  arrange.  In  addition,  among  the  allied  nations  were 
many  cross  currents  of  national  interests  that  had  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration and  compromises  effected.  Probably  no  gathering  of  states- 
men ever  had  more  momentous  questions  to  consider.  The  allied  nations 
sent  their  premiers  and  most  influential  statesmen  to  the  congress  in 
Paris.  The  president  of  the  United  States  broke  the  customs  that  had 
prevailed  from  the  time  of  Washington  to  the  present  and  was  one  of 
the  delegates  from  this  country  to  the  most  important  peace  council 
that  the  world  had  ever  seen. 

THE  PEACE  CONGRESS 
The  peace  congress  began  its  formal  sessions  January"  12,  1918. 
Mr.  Clemenceau,  premier  of  France,  was  elected  chairman.  The  dif- 
ficulties in  the  way  of  an  agreement  among  themselves  as  to  the  terms 
to  be  imposed  on  Germany  were  so  great  that  it  was  almost  exactly  four 
months  before  the  terms  of  peace  were  laid  before  the  delegates  from 
Germany.  A  singular  coincidence  is  to  be  noticed.  It  was  almost  four 
years  to  a  day  from  the  sinking  of  the  Lusitania.  ^  That  act  of  piracy 
was  one  of  the  acts  that  roused  America  and  led  to  our  intervention.  The 
sinking  of  the  ship  was  made  the  occasion  for  a  school  holiday  in 
Germany.     The  fourth  anniversary  of  the  sinking  was  a  day  of  gloom 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

an,d  despair  for  the  fallen  nation.  That  country  stood  arrainged  before 
the  highest  tribunal  in  the  world  as  the  agressor  in  the  mightiest  war 
of  history  and  read  the  stern  decrees  of  the  allies  that  stripped  her  of 
lands  and  powers.  History  knows  of  no  more  startling  changes  in 
wealth  and  power  than  that  experienced  by  Germany  as  a  result  of  the 
worlds  war.  > 

The  treaty  is  the  most  voluminous  one  ever  drawn.  It  contains 
about  90,000  words,  or  sufficient  to  make  a  volume  half  as  large  as  this 
one.  That  gives  us  an  idea  of  the  immense  number  of  points  that 
had  to  be  considered.  For  our  purpose  it  is  only  necessary  to  present 
an  analysis  of  its  principal  provisions.  No  one  except  delegates  of  the 
'nations  expressly  concerned  care  for  the  entire  text,  but  all  desire  a 
general  understanding  of  what  the  treaty  sets  forth.  It  re-draws  the 
map  of  Central  Europe,  and  coiitaius  stipulations  that  will  profoundly 
affect  the  future  of  the  nations  composing  the  Teutonic  Alliance. 

WHY  TERMS  ARE  SO  SEVERE 
Before  considering  the  terms  themselves,  let  us  make  a  general 
observation.  The  terms  are  undoubtedly  severe,  perhaps  the  most 
drastic  ever  imposed  on  a  conquered  people.  We  do  well  to  reflect 
that  many  wrongs  in  the  past  committed  by  Germany  had  to  be  righted. 
Not  to  mention  her  colonial  empire  Germany  loses  nearly  one-third 
of  her  territory  in  Europe.  The 'part  restored  to  France  is  simply  a 
return  of  territory  wrongly  taken  from  France  in  1871.  The  larger 
part  of  her  lost  territory  goes  to  Poland  from  whom  it  was  taken  two 
hundred  years  ago  in  the  utterly  im just  partition  in  the  days  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great.  But  what  the  treaty  seeks  to  safeguard  is  the  safety 
of  the  world.  Germany  record  since  the  days  of  Bismark  is  that  of  one 
continuous  grasping  after  territory  at  the  expense  of  surrounding  nations. 
It  was  absolutely  necessary  to  impose  such'  terms  as  would  render  her 
powerless  in  this  matter.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  terms  imposed  spell 
the  end  of  German  militarism.  That  menace  to  the  peax:e  and  safety  of 
the  world  is  removed. 

THE  LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS 

An  attempt  is  made  in  this  treaty  to  constitute  a  League  of  Nations 

that  will  hence  forth  put  an  end  to  war.    The  curious  student  is  reminded 

of  these  difficulties  that  confronted  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787 

when  it  met  to  form  our  Nationar  Constitution.    In  that  case,  however. 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

the  separate  nations  that  united  to  form  the  United  States  were  one  iii 
blood  and  history  and  had  been  drawn  together  by  common  dangers. 
Those  who  would  form  a  League  of  Nations  seek  to  draw  into  one 
compact,  of  course  with  very  loose  restraining  bonds,  nations  utterly  ad- 
verse in  blood  and  history.  The  mere  effort  to  form  such  a  league  is  a 
wonderful  step  in  advance.  It  remains  for  the  future  to  determine  the 
success  of  the  movement. 

THE  COVENANT  OF  THE  LEAGUE 
The  covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations  constitutes  Section  i  of 
the  peace  treaty,  which  places  upon  the  league  many  specific,  in  addition 
to  its  general  duties.  It  may  question  Germany  at  any  time  for  a  viola- 
tion of  the  neutralized  zone  east  of  the  Rhine  as  a  threat  against  the 
world's  peace.  It  will  appoint  three  of  the  five  members  of  the  Saar 
commission,  oversee  its  regime,  and  carry  out  the  plebiscite.  It  will 
appoint  the  high  commissioner  of  Danzig,  guarantee  the  independence 
of  the  free  city,  and  arrange  for  treaties  between  Danzig  and  Germany 
and  Poland.  It  will  work  out  the  mandatory  system  to  be  applied  to  the 
former  German  colonies,  and  act  as  a  final  court  in  part  of  the  plebi- 
scites of  the  Belgian-German  frontier,  and  in  dispute  as  to  the  Kiel 
Canal,  and  decide  certain  of  the  economic  and  financial  problems.  An 
international  conference  on  labor  is  to  be  held  in  October  under  its  direc- 
tion, and  another  on  the  international  control  of  ports,  waterways,  and 
railways  is  foreshadowed. 

MEMBERSHIP  OF  THE  LEAGUE 
The  membership  of  the  league  will  be  the  signatories  of  the  cove-r 
nant  and  other  natures  invited  to  accede,  who  must  lodge  a  declaration, 
of  accession  without  reservation  within  two  months.  A  new  state, 
dominion,  or  colony  may  be  admitted,  provided  its  admission  is  agreed 
by  two-thirds  of  the  assembly.  A  nation  may  withdraw  upon  giving  two 
years'  notice,  if  it  has  fulfilled  all  its  international  obligations. 

HOW  THE  LEAGUE  WILL  ADMINISTER  ITS  TRUST 
A  permanent  secretariat  will  be  established  at  the  seat  of  the  league 
which  will  be  at  Geneva.  The  assembly  will  consist  of  representatives  of 
the  members  of  the  league  and  will  meet  at  stated  intervals.  Voting 
will  be  by  states.  Each  member  wilt  have  one  vote  and  not  more  than 
three  representatives.    This  assembly  may  be  considered  as  the  House 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

of  Representatives  of  the  league.  The  council  may  be  considered  as  the 
senate.  It  will  consist  of  representatives  of  the  five  great  allied  powers, 
together  with  representatives  of  four  members  selected  by  the  assembly 
from  time  to  time ;  it,  may  co-operate  with  additional  states  and  will  meet 
at  least  once  a  year.  Members  not  represented  will  be  invited  to  send  a 
representative  when  questions  affecting  their  interests  are  discussed. 
Voting  will  be  by  nation.  Each  nation  will  have  one  vote  and  not  more 
than  one  representative.  Decision  taken  by  the  assembly  and  council 
must  be  unanimous  except  in  regard  to  procedure,  and  in  certain  cases 
specified  in  the  covenant  and  in  the  treaty,  where  decisions  will  be  by 
a  majority. 

REDUCTION  OF  ARMAMENT 
The  council  will  formulate  plans  for  a  reduction  of  armaments  for 
consideration  and  adoption.  These  plans  will  be  revised  every  lo  years. 
Once  they  are  adopted,  no  member  must  exceed  the  armament's  text 
without  the  concurrence  of  the  council.  All  members  will  exchange  full 
information  as  to  armaments  and  programs,  and  a  permanent  commission 
will  advise  the  council  on  military  and  naval  questions. 

STEPS  TAKEN  TO  PREVENT  WAR 
Upon  any  war,  or  threat  of  war,  the  council  will  meet  to  consider 
what  common  action  shall  be  taken.  Members  are  pledged  to  submit 
matters  of  dispute  to  arbitration  or  inquiry  and  not  to  resort  to  war  until 
three  months  after  the  award.  Members  agree  to  carry  out  an  arbitral 
award,  and  not  go  to  war  with  any  party  to  the  dispute  which  complies 
with  it ;  if  a  member  fails  to  carry  out  the  award  the  council  will  propose 
the  necessary  measures.  The  council  will  formulate  plans  for  the 
establishment  of  a  permanent  court  of  international  justice  to  determine 
international  disputes  or  to  give  advisory  opinions.  Members  who  do 
not  submit  their  case  to  arbitration  must  accept  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
assembly.  If  the  council,  less  the  parties  to  the  dispute,  is  unanimously 
agreed  upon  the  rights  of  it,  the  members  agree  that  they  will  not  go  to 
war  with  any  party  to  the  dispute  which  complies  with  its  recommenda- 
tions.  • 

INTERNATIONAL  PROVISIONS  FOR  LABOR 
Subject  to  and  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  international 
convention  existing  or  hereafter  to  be  agreed  upon,  the  members  of  the 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

league  will  in  general  endeavor  through  the  internatbnal  organization 
established  by  the  labor  convention  to  secure  and  maintain  fair  conditions 
of  labor  for  men,  women,  and  children  in  their  own  countries  and  other 
countries,  and  undertake  to  secure  just  treatment  of  the  native  inhabit- 
ants of  territories  under  their  control;  they  will  intrust  the  league  with 
the  general  supervision  over  the  excution  of  agreements  for  the  sup- 
pression of  traffic  in  women  and  children,  etcetera,  and  in  the  control  of 
the  trade  in  arms  and  ammunition  with  countries  in  which  control  is 
necessary. 

LABOR  CONFERENCE 

In  order  to  accomplish  these  ends.  "Members  of  the  league  ot 
nations  agree  to  establish  a  permanent  organization  to  promote  interna- 
tional adjustment  of  labor  conditions,  to  consist  of  an  annual  international 
labor  conference  and  an  international  labor  office. 

"The  former  is  composed  of  four  representatives  of  each  state 
two  from  the  government  and  one  each  from  the  employers  and  the 
employed;  each  of  them  may  vote  individually.  It  will  be  a  deliberative 
legislative  body,  its  measures  taking  the  form  of  draft  conventions  or 
recommendations  for  legislation,  which,  if  passed  by  two-thirds  vote 
must  be  submitted  to  the  lawmaking  authority  in  every  state  participating' 

THE  FIRST  MEETING  OF  THE  CONFERENCE 
The  first  meeting  of  the  conference  will  take  place  in  October  igig 
at  Washington,  to  discuss  the  eight-hour  day  or  48-hour  week;  preven- 
tion of  unemployment;  extension  and  application  of  the  international 
conventions  adopted  at  Berne  in  1906,  prohibiting  night  work  for  women 
and  use  of  white  phosphorus  in  the  manufacture  of  matches-  employ- 
ment of  women  and  children  at  night  or  in  unhealthy  work,  employment 
of  women  before  and  after  child  birth;  maternity  benefits  and  employ- 
ment of  children  as  regards  to  minum  age. 

PRINCIPLES  TO  GUIDE  THE  CONFERENCE 
Nine  principles  of  labor  conditions  are  recognized  on  the  ground 
that  the  well-being,  physical  and  moral  of  the  industrial  wage-earners 
IS  of  supreme  international  importance."  Exceptions  are  necessitated 
by  differences  of  climate,  habits,  and  economic  development.  They  in- 
clude the  guiding  principle  that  labor  should  not  be  regarded  merely  as 
a  commodity  or  article  of  commerce;  right  of  association  of  employers 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

and  employees ;  a  wage  adequate  to  maintain  a  reasonable  standard  of 
Hie;  the  eight-hour  day  or  48-hour  week;  a  weekly  rest  of  at  least  24 
hours,  which  should  include  Sunday  wherever  practicable;  abolition 
of  child  labor,  and  assurance  of  the  continuation  of  the  education  and 
proper  physical  development  of  children;  equal  pay  for  equal  work 
as  between  men  and  women ;  equal  treatment  of  all  workers  lawfully 
resident  therein,  including  foreigners;  and  a  system  of  inspection  in 
which  women  should  take  part. 

NO  MORE  SECRET  TREATIES 
All  treaties  of  international  engagements  concluded  after  the 
institution  of  the  league  will  be  registered  with  the  secretariat  and 
published.  The  assembly  may  from  time  to  time  advise  members  to 
reconsider  treaties  which  have  become  inapplicable  or  involve  danger 
of  peace.  The  covenant  abrogates  all  obligations  between  members 
inconsistent  with  its  terms,  but  nothing  in  it  shall  affect  the  validity 
of  international  engagement  such  as  treaties  of  arbitration  or  regional 
understandings  like  the  Monroe  Doctrine  for  securing  the  mainten- 
ance of  peace.  This  last  clause  is  of  special  interest  to  the  United 
States. 

NEW  BOUNDARIES  OF  GERMANY 
After  thus  providing  for  the  League  of  Nations,  the  treaty  takes 
up  the  provisions  of  special  importance  to  the  various  belligerent  nations. 
It  is  well  to  notice  the  new  boundaries  of  Germany.  That  nation 
cedes  to  France,  Alsace-Lorraine,  5600  square  miles,  and  to  Belgium 
two  small  districts  between  Luxembourg  and  Holland  and  totaling 
382  square  miles.  She  also  cedes  to  Poland  the  southeastern  tip  of 
Silesia  beyond  and  including  Oppeln,  most  of  Posen  and  West 
Prussia,  27,680  square  miles.  She  loses  sovereignty  over  the  north- 
easternmost  tip  of  East  Prussia,  40  square  miles  north  of  the  River 
Memel,  and  the  internationalized  areas  about  Danzig,  729  square 
miles,  and  the  basin  of  the  Saar,  738  square  miles,  between  the  west- 
ern border  of  the  Rhenish  Palatinate  of  Bavaria  and  the  southeast 
corner  of  Luxembourg. 

The  southeastern  third  of  East  Prussia  and  the  area  between 
East  Prussia  and  the  Vistula  north  of  latitude  53  degrees  3  minutes 
is  to  have  its  nationality  determined  by  popular  vote,  5,785  square 
miles,  as  is  to  be  the  case  in  part  of  Schleswig,  2,787  square  miles. 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

BETWEEN  BELGIUM  AND  GERMANY 
Germany  is  to  consent  to  the  abrogation  of  the  treaties  of  1839, 
by  which  Belgium  was  established  as  a  neutral  state,  and  to  agree 
in  advance  to  any  convention  with  which  the  allied  and  associated 
powers  may  determine  to  replace  them. 

Germany  is  to  recognize  the  full  sovereignty  of  Belgium  over  the 
contested  territory  of  Morenet  and  over  part  of  Prussian  Morenet, 
and  to  renounce  in  favor  of  Belgium  all  rights  of  the  circles  of  Eupen 
and  Malmedy,  the  inhabitants  of  which  are  to  be  entitled,  within  six 
months,  to  protest  against  this  change  of  sovereignty,  either  in  whole 
or  in  part,  the  final  decision  to  be  reserved  to  the  league  of  nations. 
A  commission  is  to  settle  the  details  of  the  frontier,  and  various 
regulations  for  change  of  nationality  are  laid  down. 

LUXEMBOURG  SET  FREE 
Germany  renounces  her  various  treaties  and  conventions  with 
the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxembourg,  recognizes  that  it  ceased  to  be  a 
part  of  the  German  zollverein  from  Jan.  1,  last,  renounces  all  right 
of  exploitation  of  the  railroads,  adheres  to  the  abrogation  of  its 
neutrality,  and  accepts  in  advance  any  international  agreement  as  to 
it,  reached  by  the  allied  and  associated  powers. 

THE  EAST  BANK  OF  THE  RHINE 
Germany  will  not  maintain  any  fortifications  or  armed  forces 
less  than  50  kilometers  to  the  east  of  the  Rhine,  hold  any  maneuvers, 
nor  maintain  any  works  to  facilitate  mobilization.  In  case  of  viola- 
tion, "she  shall  be  regarded  as  committing  a  hostile  act  against  the 
powers  who  sign  the  present  treaty  and  as  intending  to  disturb  the 
peace  of  the  world."  '*By  virtue  of  the  present  treaty  Germany  shall 
be  bound  to  respond  to  any  request  for  an  explanation  which  the 
council  of  the  League  of  Nations  may  think  it  is  necessary  to  address 
to  her." 

ALSACE-LORRAINE 
After  recognition  of  the  moral  obligation  to  repair  the  wrong 
done  in  1871  by  Germany  to  France  and  the  people  of  Alsace-Lorraine, 
the  territories  ceded  to  Germany  by  the  treaty  of  Frankfort  are  re- 
stored to  France  with  their  frontiers  as  before  187 1  to  date  from 
the  signing  of  the  armistice,  and  to  be  free  of  all  public  debts. 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

Citizenship  is  regulated  by  detailed  provisions  distinguishing 
those  who  are  immediately  resorted  to  full  French  citizenship,  those 
who  have  to  make  formal  applications  therefor,  and  those  for  whom 
naturalization  is  open  after  three  years.  The  last  named  class  includes 
German  residents  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  as  distinguished  from  those 
who  acquire  the  position  of  Alsace-Lorrainers  as  defined  in  the  treaty. 
All  public  property  and  all  private  property  of  German  ex-sovereigns 
passes  to  the  French  without  payment  or  credit.  France  is  subsituted 
for  Germany  as  regards  ownership  of  the  railroads  and  rights  over 
concessions  of  tramways;  the  Rhine  bridges  pass  to  France  with  the 
obligation  for  their  upkeep 

Several  clauses  now  follow  providing  for  trade  between  Alsace- 
Lorraine  and  Germany;  the  sanctity  of  existing  contracts  etc.  French 
law  replaces  German  law.  A  convention  to  be  made  between  France 
and  Germany  is  to  settle  many  details. 

THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  SAAR 
In  compensation  for  the  destruction  of  coal  mines  in  northern 
France  and  as  payment  on  account  of  reparation,  Germany  cedes  to 
France  full  ownership  of  the  coal  mines  of  the  Saar  Basin  with  their 
subsidiaries,  accessories,  and  facilities.  Their  value  will  be  estimated 
by  the  reparation  commission  and  credited  against  that  account. 
The  French  rights  will  be  governed  by  German  law  in  force  at  the 
armistice  excepting  war  legislation,  France  replacing  the  present 
owners  whom  Germany  undertakes  to  indemnify.  France  will  con- 
tinue to  furnish  the  present  proportion  of  coal  for  local  needs  and 
contribute  in  just  proportion  to  local  taxes.  The  basin  extends  from 
the  frontier  of  Lorraine  as  reannexed  to  France  north  as  far  as  St. 
Wendel,  including  on  the  west  the  valley  of  the  Saar  as  far  as  Saar- 
holzbach  and  on  the  east  the  town  of  Homburg. 

A  MIXED  GOVERNMENT  PROVIDED 
In  order  to  secure  the  rights  and  welfare  of  the  population  and 
guarantee  to  France  entire  freedom  in  working  the  mines,  the  ter- 
ritory will  be  governed  by  a  commission  appointed  by  the  League  of 
Nations  and  consisting  of  five  members,  one  French,  one  a  native  in- 
habitant of  the  Saar,  and  three  representing  three  different  countries 
other  than  France  and  Germany.  The  league  will  appoint  a  member 
of  the  commission  as  chairman  to  act  as  executive  of  the  commission. 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

The  commission  will  have  all  powers  of  government  formerly  belong- 
ing to  the  German  Empire,  Prussia,  and  Bavaria,  will  administer 
the  railroads  and  other  public  services  and  have  full  power  to  in- 
terpret the  treaty  clauses.  The  local  courts  will  continue,  but  subject 
to  the  commission.  Existing  German  legislation  will  remain  the 
basis  of  the  law,  but  the  commission  may  make  modification  after 
consulting  a  local  representative  assembly  which  it  will  organize. 

THE  PEOPLE'S  RIGHTS  SECURED 
The  people  will  preserve  their  local  assemblies,  religious  liberties, 
schools,  and  languages,  but  may  vote  only  for  local  assemblies.  They 
will  keep  their  present  nationality  except  so  far  as  individuals  may 
change  it.  Those  wishing  to  leave  will  have  every  facility  with  respect 
to  their  property.  The  territory  will  form  part  of  the  French  customs 
system  with  no  export  tax  on  coal  and  metallurgical  products  going  to- 
Germany  nor  on  German  products  entering  the  basin,  and  for  five  years 
no  import  duties  on  products  of  the  basin  going  to  Germany  or  German 
products  coming  into  the  basin  for  local  consumption.  French  money 
may  circulate  without  restriction. 

POSSIBLE  RETURN  TO  GERMANY 
After  15  years  a  plebiscite  will  be  held  by  communes  to  ascertain 
the  desires  of  the  population  as  to  the  continuance  of  the  existing 
regime  under  the  League  of  Nations,  union  with  France  or  union 
with  Germany.  The  right  to  vote  will  belong  to  all  inhabitants  over 
20  resident  therein  at  the  signature  of  the  treaty.  Taking  into  ac- 
count the  opinions  thus  expressed,  the  league  will  decide  the  ultimate 
sovereignty  in  any  portion  restored  to  Germany.  The  German 
Government  must  buy  out  the  French  mines  at  an  appraised  valua- 
tion, if  the  price  is  not  paid  within  six  months  thereafter  this  portion 
passes  finally  to  France.  If  Germany  buys  back  the  mines  the 
league  will  determine  how  much  of  the  coal  shall  be  annually  sold 
to  Franc6. 

GERMAN  RELATIONS  WITH  FORMER  AUSTRIAN  STATES 
"Germany  recognizes  the  total  independence  of  German  Austria 
in  the  boundaries  traced."  Germany  recognizes  the  entire  independ- 
ence of  the  Czecho-Slovak  State  including  the  autonomous  territory 
of  the  Ruthenians  south  of  the  Carpathians,  and  accepts  the  frontiers 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

of  this  State  as  to  be  determined,  which  in  the  case  of  the  German 
frontier  shall  follow  the  frontier  of  Bohemia  in  1914.  The  usual 
stipulations  as  to  acquisition  and  change  of  nationality  follow. 

GERMAN  RELATIONS  WITH  NEW  POLAND 
Germany  cedes  to  Poland  the  greater  part  of  upper  Silesia,  Posen, 
and  the  Province  of  West  Prussia  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula. 
A  field  boundary  commission  of  seven,  five  representing  the  allied 
and  associated  powers,  and  one  each  representing  Poland  and  Ger- 
many, shall  be  constituted  within  15  days  of  the  signing  of  peace  to 
delimit  this  boundary.  Such  special  provisions  as  are  necessary  to 
protect  racial,  linguistic  or,  religious  minorities,  and  to  protect  free- 
dom of  transit  and  equitable  treatment  of  commerce  of  other  nations 
shall  be  laid  down  in  a  subsequent  treaty  between  the  five  allied  and 
associated  powers  and  Poland. 

EAST  PRUSSIA 
East  Prussia  presents  a  peculiar  problem  since  it  is  cut  off  from 
Germany  proper.  The  boundaries  between  East  Prussia  and  Poland 
are  to  be  determined  by  a  plebisicites  or  a  referendum  vote  of  the 
people,  specifying  what  sections  are  affected,  the  treaty  sets  forth 
that  in  each  case  German  troops  and  authorities  will  move  out  within 
15  days  of  the  peace  and  the  territories  will  be  placed  under  an  inter- 
national commi€sion  of  five  members  appointed  by  the  five  allied 
and  associated  powers,  with  the  particular  duty  of  arranging  for  a 
free,  fair  and  secret  vote.  The  commission  will  report  the  results 
of  the  plebiscites  to  the  five  powers  with  a  recommendation  for  the 
boundary  and  will  terminate  its  work  as  soon  as  the  boundary  has 
been  laid  down  and  the  new  authorities  set  up. 

THE  RIGHTS  OF  EAST  PRUSSIA  GUARDED 
The  five  alHed  and  associated  powers  will  draw  up  regulations 
assuring  East  Prussia  full  and  equitable  access  to  and  use  of  the 
Vistula.  A  subsequent  convention,  of  which  the  terms  will  be  fixed 
by  the  ftve  allied  and  associated  powers  will  be  entered  into  between 
Poland,.  Germany  and  Danzig  to  assure  suitable  railroad  communica- 
tion across  German  territory  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vistula  be- 
tween Poland  and  Danzig,  while  Poland  shall  grant  free  passage 
from  East  Prussia  to  Germany. 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

The  northeastern  corner  of  East  Prussia  about  Memel  is  to  be 
ceded  by  Germany  to  the  associated  powers,  the  former  agreeing  to 
accept  the  settlement  made,  especially  as  regards  the  nationality  of 
the  inhabitants. 

DANZIG  MADE  A  FREE  CITY 

Danzig  and  the  district  immediately  about  it  are  to  be  consti- 
tuted into  the  "free  City  of  Danzig"  under  the  guarantee  of  the  League 
of  Nations.  A  high  commissioner  appointed  by  the  league  and  resi- 
dent at  Danzig  shall  draw  up  a  constitution  in  agreement  with  the 
duly  appointed  representatives  of  the  city  and  shall  deal  in  the  first 
instance  with  all  differences  arising  between  the  city  and  Poland. 
The  actual  boundaries  of  the  city  shall  be  delimited  by  a  commission 
appointed  within  six  months  from  the  signing  of  peace,  and  to  in- 
clude three  representatives  chosen  by  the  allied  and  associated 
powers,  and  one  each  by  Germany  and  Poland. 

RELATIONS  BETWEEN  DANZIG  AND  POLAND 
A  convention,  the  terms  of  which  shall  be  fixed  by  the  five  allied 
and  associated  powers,  shall  be  concluded  between  Poland  and  Dan- 
zig, which  shall  include  Danzig  within  the  Polish  customs  frontiers 
though  a  free  area  in  the  port;  insure  to  Poland  the  free  use  of  all 
the  city*s  waterways,  docks,  and  other  port  facilities,  the  control  and 
administration  of  the  Vistula  and  the  whole  through  railway  system 
within  the  city,  and  postal,  telegraphic,  and  telephonic  communica- 
tion between  Poland  and  Danzig;  provide  against  discrimination 
against  Poles  within  the  city  and  place  its  foreign  relations  and  the 
diplomatic  protection  of  its  citizens  abroad  in  charge  of  Poland. 

GERMAN  RELATIONS  WITH  DENMARK 
The  war  with  Denmark  in  the  days  of  Bismark  resulted  in  the 
loss  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  to  Germany.  This  treaty  provides 
for  a  conditional  return  to  these  provinces  to  Denmark,  the  country 
is  divided  into  zones  in  each  of  which  the  people  are  to  vote  on  the 
question  of  being  returned  to  Denmark.  The  international  commis- 
sion will  then  draw  a  new  frontier  on  the  basis  of  these  plebiscies 
and  with  due  regard  of  geographical  economic  conditions.  Germay 
will  renounce  all  sovereignty  over  territories  north  of  this  line  in 
favor  of  the  associated  governments,  who  will  hand  them  over  to 
Denmark. 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

HELIGOLAND  TO  BE  DISMANTLED 
Heligoland  was  a  very  strongly  fortified  island  guarding  the  ap- 
proaches to  the  Kiel  Canal.  The  treaty  sets  forth  that  the  fortifica- 
tions, military  establishment  and  harbors  of  the  islands  of  Heligoland 
and  Dune  are  to  be  destroyed  under  the  supervision  of  the  Allies  by 
German  labor  and  at  Germany's  expense.  They  may  not  be  recon- 
structed for  any  similar  fortifications  built  in  the  future. 

STRIPPED  OF  HER  COLONIAL  EMPIRE 
Germany's  vast  colonial  empire—totaling  more  than  1,000,000 
square  miles  in  area— is  now  a  thing  of  the  past.  Outside  of  Europe 
Germany  renounces  all  rights,  titles,  and  privileges  as  to  her  own 
or  her  allies'  territories  to  all  the  allied  and  associated  powers,  and 
undertakes  to  accept  whatever  measures  are  taken  by  the  five  allied 
powers  in  relation  thereto.  In  addition  Germany  surrenders  all  conces- 
sions she  had  wrung  from  other  countries,-as  China,  Siam,  Liberia 
Morocco  and  Egypt.  * 

GERMANY  LOSES  HER  ARMY 
The  demobilization  of  the  German  Army  must  take  place  within 
two  months  of  the  peace.  Its  strength  may  not  exceed  100,000 
including  4,000  officers,  with  not  over  seven  divisions  of  infantry  and 
three  of  cavalry,  and  it  is  to  be  devoted  exclusively  to  maintenance 
of  internal  order  and  control  of  frontiers.  Divisions  may  not  be 
grouped  under  more  than  two  army  corps  headquarters  staffs.  The 
great  German  General  Staff  is  abolished.  The  army  administrative 
service,  consisting  of  civilian  personnel  not  included  in  the  number 
of  effectives,  is  reduced  to  one-tenth  the  total  in  the  1913  budget 
Employees  of  the  German  states  such  as  customs  officers,  first  guards 
may  not  exceed  the  number  in  1913.  Gendarmes  and  local  police  may 
be  increased  only  in  accordance  with  the  growth  of  population.  None 
of  these  may  be  assembled  for  military  training. 

STRIPPED  OF  HER  NAVY 
The  German  Navy  must  be  demobilized  within  a  period  of  two 
months  after  the  peace.  She  will  be  allowed  six  small  battleships,  six  light 
cruisers,  12  destroyers,  12  torpedo  boats,  and  no  submarines,  either  mili- 
tary or  commercial,  with  a  personnel  of  15,000  men,  including  officers,  and 
no  reserve  force  of  any  character.    Conscription  is  abolished,  only  volun- 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

teer  service  being  permitted,  with  a  minimum  period  of  25  yeers*  service 
for  officers  and  1^  for  men.  No  member  of  the  German  mercantile  ma- 
rine will  be  permitted  any  naval  training. 

Germany  must  surrender  42  modern  destroyers,  50  modem  torpedo 
boats,  and  all  submarines  with  their  salvage  vessels.  All  war  vessels  un- 
der construction,  including  submarines,  must  be  broken  up.  War  vessels 
not  otherwise  provided  for  are  to  be  placed  in  reserve  or  used  for  com- 
mercial purposes.  Replacement  of  ships,  except  those  lost,  can  take  place 
only  at  the  end  of  20  years  for  battleships  and  15  years  for  destroyers. 
The  largest  armored  ship  Germany  will  be  permitted  will  be  10,000  tons. 

CANNOT  HAVE  FIGHTING  AIR  CRAFT 
For  temporary  purposes  Germany  may  retain  a  small  force  of  air- 
planes and  a  small  force  to  operate  them,  but  otherwise  the  entire  air 
force  is  to  be  demobilized  within  two  months.  No  aviation  grounds  or 
dirigible  sheds  are  to  be  allowed  within  150  kilometers  of  the  Rhine  or 
the  eastern  or  southern  frontiers,  existing  installations  within  these  lim- 
its to  be  destroyed.  The  manufacture  t>f  aircraft  and  parts  of  aircraft 
is  forbidden  for  six  months.  All  military  and  naval  aeronautical  material 
under  a  most  exhaustive  definition  must  be  surrendered  within  three 
months  except  for  the  100  seaplanes  already  specified. 

COMPULSORY  MILITARY  SERVICE  ABANDONED 
Conscription  is  abolished  in  Germany.  The  enlisted  personnel  must 
be  maintained  by  voluntary  enlistments  for  terms  of  12  consecutive  years, 
the  number  of  discharges  before  the  expiration  of  that  term  not  in  any 
year  to  exceed  5  per  cent  of  the  total  effectives.  Officers  remaining  in 
the  service  must  agree  to  serve  to  the  age  of  45  years,  and  newly  appointed 
officers  must  agree  to  serve  actively  for  25  years. 

No  military  schools  except  those  absolutely  indispensable  for  the 
units  allowed  shall  exist  in  Germany  two  months  after  the  peace.  No  as- 
sociations such  as  societies  of  discharged  soldiers,  shooting  or  touring 
clubs,  educational  establishments,  or  universities  may  occupy  themselves 
with  military  matters.    All  measures  of  mobilization  are  forbidden. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  GUNS  AND  AMMUNITION  FORBIDDEN 

All  establishments  for  the  manufacturing,  preparation,  storage,  or 

design  of  arms  and  munitions  of  war,  except  those  specifically  excepted, 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

must  be  closed  within  three  months  of  the  peace  and  their  personnel  dis- 
missed^ The  exact  amount  of  armament  and  munitions  allowed  Germany 
IS  laid  down  m  detail  by  tables,  all  in  excess  to  be  surrendered  or  rendered 
useless.  The  manufacture  or  importation  of  asphyxiating,  poisonous  or 
other  gases  and  all  analogous  liquids  is  forbidden,  as  well  as  the  importa- 
tion of  arms,  munitions  and  war  material.  Germany  may  not  manufac- 
ture such  material  for  foreign  governments. 

WILLIAM  II  INDICTED  AND  HIS  TRIAL  SOUGHT 
"The  allied  and  associated. powers  publicly  arraign  William  II  of 
Hohenzollern.  formerly  German  Emperor,  not  for  an  offense  against 
cnmina!  law,  but  for  a  supreme  offense  against  international  morality 
and  the  sanctity  of  treaties." 

The  former  Emperor's  surrender  is  to  be  requested  of  Holland,  and 
a  special  tribunal  set  up,  composed  of  one  judge  from  each  of  the  five 
great  powers,  with  full  guarantees  of  the  right  of  defense.  It  is  to  be 
guided  by  the  highest  motives  of  international  policy  with  a  view  of  vin- 
dicating the  solemn  obligations  of  international  undertakings  and  the 
validity  of  international  morality,"  and  will  fix  the  punishment  it  feels 
should  be  imposed. 

OFFICERS  RESPONSIBLE  FOR  CRUELTIES  TO  BE  TRIED 
Persons  accused  of  having  committed  acts  in  violation  of  the  laws 
and  customs  of  war  are  to  be  tried  and  punished  by  military  tribunals  of 
only  one  state.  They  will  be  tried  before  a  tribunal  of  that  state;  if  they 
affect  nationals  of  several  states  they  will  be  tried  before  joint  tribunals 
of  the  states  concerned.  Germany  shall  hand  over  to  the  associated 
governments  either  jointly  or  severally  all  persons  so  accused,  and  ajl 
documents  and  information  necessary  to  insure  full  knowledge  of  the  in- 
cnmmating  acts,  the  discovery  of  the  offenders  and  the  just  appreciation 
of  the  responsibility.  The  accused  will  be  entitled  to  name  Ws  own 
counsel. 

GERMANY  MUST  PAY  ALL  THE  DAMAGES  SHE  CAN 
"While  the  allied  and  associated  governments  recognize  that  the 
resources  of  Germany  are  not  adequate  after  taking  into  account  per- 
manent diminutions  of  such  resources  which  will  result  from  other  treaty 
claims,  to  make  complete  reparation  for  all  such  loss  and  damage,  they 
require  her  to  make  compensation  for  all  damages  caused  to  civilians  un- 
der seven  main  categories : 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

These  are  now  defined  and  the  total  obligation  Germany  is  to  pay  is 
to  be  determined  and  notified  to  her  after  a  fair  hearing  and  not  later 
than  May  i,  192 1,  by  an  inter-allied  reparation  commission.  At  the  same 
time  a  schedule  of  payments  to  discharge  the  obligation  within  30  years 
shall  be  presented.  These  payments  are  subject  to  postponement  in  cer- 
tin  contingencies.  Germany  irrevocably  recognizes  the  full  authority  of 
this  commission,  agrees  to  supply  it  with  all  the  necessary  information, 
and  to  pass  legislation  to  effectuate  its  findings.  She  further  agrees  to 
restore  to  the  Allies  cash  and  certain  articles  which  can  be  identified. 

A  PRESENT  PAYMENT  DEMANDED 
As  an  immediate  step  forward  restoration,  Germany  shall  pay  within 
two  years  20,000,000,000  marks  in  either  gold,  goods,  ships,  or  other  speci- 
fic forms  of  payment,  with  the  understanding  that  certain  expenses  such 
as  those  of  the  armies  of  occupation  and  payments  for  food  and  raw  ma- 
terials may  be  deducted  at  the  discretion  of  the  Allies. 

It  is  now  provided  that  a  commission  shall  have  charge  of  future 
payments  and  the  amounts  of  such  payment  is  left  to  be  decided  by  the 
commission. 

MUST  REPLACE  SHIP  SUNK  BY  SUBMARINES 
The  German  Government  recognizes  the  right  of  the  Allies  to  the 
replacement,  ton  for  ton  and  class  for  class,  of  all  merchant  ships  and 
fishing  boats  lost  or  damaged  owing  to  the  war,  and  agrees  to  cede  to  the 
Allies  all  German  merchant  ships  of  1,600  tons  gross  and  upward,  one- 
half  of  her  ships  between  1,600  anjd  1,000  tons  gross,  and  one-quarter  of 
her  steam  trawlers  and  other  fishing  boats.  These  ships  are  to  be  deliv- 
ered within  two  months  to  the  reparation  committee,  together  with  docu- 
ments of  title  evidencing  the  transfer  of  the  ships  free  from  incumbrance. 
"As  an  additional  part  of  reparation,"  the  German  Government  fur- 
ther agrees  to  build  merchant  ships  for  the  account  of  the  Allies  to  the 
amount  of  not  exceeding  200,000  tons  gross  annually  during  the  next  five 
years. 

MUST  RESTORE  DEVASTATED  AREAS 
Germany  undertakes  to  devote  her  economic  resources  directly  to  the 
physical  restoration  of  the  invaded  areas.  The  reparation  commission  is 
authorized  to  require  Germany  to  replace  the  destroyed  articles  and  to 
manufacture  materials  required  for  reconstruction  purposes,  all  with  due 
consideration  for  Germany's  essential  domestic  requirements. 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

The  German  Government  is  also  to  restore  to  the  French  Govern- 
ment certain  papers  taken  by  the  German  authorities  in  1870  belonging 
then  to  M.  Reuther,  and  to  restore  the  French  flags  taken  during  the  war 
of  1870  and  1871.  As  reparation  for  the  destruction  of  the  library  of 
Louvain,  Germany  is  to  hand  over  manuscripts,  early  printed  books, 
prints,  etc.,  to  be  equivalent  to  those  destroyed. 

"In  addition  to  the  above  Germany  is  to  hand  over  to  Belgium  wings 
now  at  Beriin  belonging  to  the  altar  piece  of  the  'Adoration  of  the  Lamb," 
by  Hubert  and  Jan  Van  Eyck,  the  center  of  which  is  now  in  the  church  of 
St.  Bavo  at  Ghent,  and  the  wings  now  at  Beriin  and  Munich,  of  the  altar 
piece  of  Tast  Supper,'  by  Dirk  Bouts,  the  center  of^hich  belongs  to  the 
church  of  St.  Peter  at  Louvain. 

MUST  PAY  COST  OF  ARMY  OF  OCCUPATION 
Germany  is  required  to  pay  the  total  cost  of  the  armies  of  occupation 
from  the  date  of  the  armistice  as  long  as  they  are  maintained  in  German 
territory,  this  cost  to  be  a  first  charge  after  making  such  provisions  for 
payments  for  imports  as  the  Allies  may  deem  necessary.  Germany  is  to 
deliver  to  the  allied  and  associated  powers  all  sums  deposited  in  Germany 
by  Turkey  and  Austria-Hungary  in  connection  with  the  financial  support 
extended  by  her  to  them  during  the  war,  and  to  transfer  to  the  Allies  all 
claims  against  Austria-Hungary,  Bulgaria,  or  Turkey  in  connection  with 
agreements  made  during  the  war.  Germany  confirms  the  renunciation  of 
the  treaties  of  Bucharest  and  Brest-Litovsk. 

TRADE  AND  COMMERCE  REGULATED 
"Customs— For  a  period  of  six  months  Germany  shall  impose  no 
tariff  duties  higher  than  the  lowest  in  force  in  1914,  and  for  certain  agri- 
cultural products,  wines,  vegetables,  oils,  artificial  silk,  and  washed  or 
scoured  wool  this  restriction  obtains  for  two  and  a  half  years,  or  for  five 
years  unless  further  extended  by  the  league  of  nations. 

"Germany  must  give  most  favored  nation  treatment  to  the  allied  and 
associated  powers.  She  shall  impose  no  customs  tariff  for  five  years"  on 
goods  originating  in  Alsace-Loraine  and  for  three  years  on  goods  originat- 
ing in  former  German  territory  ceded  to  Poland  with  the  right  of  obser- 
vation of  a  similar  exception  for  Luxemburg. 

"Ships  of  the  allied  and  associated  powers  shall  for  five  years,  and 
thereafter  under  condition  of  reciprocity,  unless  the  league  of  nations 
otherwise  decides,  enjoy  the  same  rights  in  German  ports  as  German 


TtlE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

vessels  and  have  most  favored  nation  treatment  in  fishing,  coasting  trade, 
and  towage,  even  in  territorial  waters.  Ships  of  a  country  having  no 
sea  coast  may  be  registered  at  some  one  place  within  its  territory. 

FREEDOM  OF  TRANSIT 
Germany  must  grant  freedom  of  transit  through  her  territories  by 
mail  or  water  to  persons,  goods,  ships,  carriages  and  mails  from  or  to 
any  of  the  allied  or  associated  powers  without  customs  or  transit  duties 
undue  delays,  restrictions  or  discriminations  based  on  nationality,  means 
of  transport  or  place  of  entry  or  departure.  Goods  in  transit  shall  be  as- 
sured all  possible  speed  of  journey,  especially  perishable  goods.  Germany 
may  not  divert  traffic  from  its  normal  course  in  favor  of  her  own  trans- 
port routes  or  maintain  "control  stations"  in  connection  with  transmigra- 
tion traffic.  She  may  not  establish  any  tax  discrimination  against  the 
ports  of  allied  or  associaed  powers,  must  grant  the  latter's  seaports  all 
factors  and  reduced  tariffs  granted  her  own  or  other  nationals,  and  af- 
ford the  allied  and  associated  powers  equal  rights  with  those  of  her  own 
nationals  in  her  ports  and  waterways,  save  that  she  is  free  to  open  or 
close  her  maritime  coasting  trade. 

GERMAN  RIVERS  INTERNATIONALIZED 
The  Elbe  from  the  junction  of  the  Vltava,  the  Vitava  from  Prague, 
the  Oder  from  Oppa,  the  Niemen  from  Grodno,  and  the  Danube  from 
Ulm  are  declared  international,  together  with  their  connections.  The  ri- 
parian states  must  ensure  good  conditions  of  navigation  within  their  ter- 
ritories unless  a  special  organization  exists  therefor.  Otherwise  appeal 
may  be  had  to  a  special  tribunal  of  the  league  of  nations,  which  also  may 
arrange  for  a  general  international  waterways  convention. 

"The  Elbe  and  the  Oder  are  to  be  placed  under  international  com- 
missions to  meet  within  three  months,  that  for  the  Elbe  composed  of  four 
representatives  of  Germany,  two  from  Czecho- Slovakia,  and  one  each 
from  Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  and  Belgium,  and  that  for  the  Oder 
composed  of  one  each  from  Poland,  Russia,  Czecho- Slovakia,  Great  Bri- 
tain, France,  Denmark,  and  Sweden. 

"If  any  riparian  state  on  the  Niemen  should  so  request  of  the  league 
of  nations  a  similar  commission  shall  be  established  there.  These  com- 
missions shall,  upon  request  of  any  riparian  state,  meet  within  three 
months  to  revise  existing  international  agreement. 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

CONTROL   OF   THE    DANUBE  / 

The  European  Danube  commission  reassumes  its  pre-war  powers,  for 

the  time  bemg,  with  representatives  of  only  Great  Britain,  Italy,  and  Rou- 

man.a     The  upper  Danube  is  to  be  administered  by  a  new  international 

commass,on  unt.l  a  definitive  state  be  drawn  up  at  a  conference  o7th 

yTrTfteTrtl?  '"'  ^'"^'  "'  ^^^"'"^'  ^°^™"*^  -^''•"  °- 
"The  enemy  governments  shall  make  full  reparations  for  all  war 
damages  caused  to  the  European  commission;  shall  cede  their  river  facil- 
ities m  surrendered  territory,  and  give  Czechc^Slovakia,  Serbia,  and  Rou- 
mama  any  rights  necessary  on  their  shores  for  carrying  out  improve- 
ments in  navigation. 

FRANCE,  BELGIUM  AND  THE  RHINE 
The  Rhine  is  placed  under  the  central  commission  to  meet  at  Stras- 
bourg withm  six  months  after  the  peace  and  to  be  composed  of  four  rep- 
resentatives of  France,  which  shall  in  addition  select  the  president;  four 
of  Germany  and  two  each  of  Great  Britiain,  Italy,  Belgium,  Switzerland, 
and  the  Netherlands. 

"Belgium  is  to  be  permitted  to  build  a  deep  draft  Rhine-Meuse  canal 
If  she  so  desires  within  twenty-five  years,  in  which  case  Germany  must 
construct  the  part  within  her  territory  on  plans  drawn  by  Belgium- 
similarly,  the  interested  allied  governments  may  construct  a  Rhine-Meuse 
canal,  both,  if  constructed,  to  come  under  the  competent  international 
commission. 

"Germany  must  give  France  on  the  course  of  the  Rhine  included  be- 
between  the  two  extreme  points  of  her  frontiers  all  rights  to  take  water  to 
feed  canals,  while  herself  agreeing  not  to  make  canals  on  the  right  bank 
opposite  France.  She  must  also  hand  over  to  France  all  her  drafts  and 
designs  for  this  part  of  the  river. 

THE  KIEL  CANAL  INTERNATIONALIZED 
The  Kiel  canal  is  to  remain  free  and  open  to  war  and  merchant  ships 
of  all  nations  at  peace  with  Germany.  Goods  and  ships  of  all  states  are 
to  be  treated  on  terms  of  absolute  equality,  and  no  taxes  to  be  imposed 
beyond  those  necessary  for  upkeep  and  improvement  for  which  Germany 
is  responsible. 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE 

"In  case  of  violation  of  or  disagreement  as  to  these  provisions,  any 
state  may  appeal  to  the  league  of  nations,  and  may  demand  the  appoint- 
ment of  an  international  commission.  For  preliminary  hearing  of  com- 
plaints Germany  shall  establish  a  local  authority  at  Kiel. 

THE  TERMS  NOT  TO  BE  MODIFIED 
Germany  agrees  to  recognize  the  full  validity  of  the  treaties  of  peace 
and  additional  conventions  to  be  concluded  by  the  allied  and  associated 
powers  with  the  powers  allied  with  Germany ;  to  agree  to  the  decisions  to 
be  taken  as  to  the  territories  of  Austria-Hungary,  Bulgaria,  and  Turkey, 
and  to  recognize  the  new  states  in  the  frontiers  to  be  fixed  for  them. 

Germany  agrees  not  to  put  forward  any  pecuniary  claims  against  any 
allied  or  associated  power  signing  the  present  treaty  based  on  events  pre- 
vious to  the  coming  into  force  of  the  treaty. 

Germany  accepts  all  decrees  as  to  German  ships  and  goods  made  by 
any  allied  or  associated  prize  court.  The  allies  reserve  the  right  to  ex- 
amine all  decisions  of  German  prize  courts.  The  present  treaty,  of  which 
the  French  and  British  texts  are  both  authentic,  shall  be  ratified  and  the 
depositions  of  ratifications  made  in  Paris  as  soon  as  possible.  The  treaty 
is  to  become  effective  in  all  respects  for  each  power  on  the  date  of  depo- 
sition of  its  ratification. 

THE  ALLIES  TAKE  NO  RISKS 
As  a  guarantee  for  the  execution  of  the  treaty  German  territory  to 
the  west  of  the  Rhine,  together  with  the  bridgeheads,  will  be  occupied  by 
allied  and  associated  troops  for  15  years.  If  the  conditions  are  faith- 
fully carried  out  by  Germany,  certain  districts,  including  the  bridgehead 
of  Cologne,  will  be  evacuated  at  the  expiration  of  five  years.  Certain 
other  districts,  including  the  bridgehead  of  Coblenz  and  the  territories 
nearest  the  Belgian  frontier  will  be  evacuated  after  ten  years,  and  the  re- 
mainder, including  the  bridgehead  of  Mainz,  will  be  evacuated  after  15 
years.  In  case  the  interallied  reparation  commission  finds  that  Germany 
has  failed  to  observe  the  whole  or  part  of  her  obligations,  either  during 
the  occupation  or  after  the  15  years  have  expired,  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
areas  specified  will  be  reoccupied  immediately.  If  before  the  expiration 
of  the  15  years  Germany  compUes  with  all  the  treaty  understandings,  the 
occupying  forces  will  be  withdrawn  immediately. 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE  / 

These  are  the  essential  features  of  the  volumlous  peace 
treaty  presented  to  the  German  delegates  at  Versailles  May 
1  ^^^^-  J'^^^«  ^as  of  course  a  storm  of  protest  from  all 
classes  of  German  citizens  at  what  they  considered  the  excessive 
seventy  of  the  terms.  Had  the  fortunes  of  war  been  different 
we  would  have  seen  far  more  stringent  terms  imposed  on  Great 
iintam  and  France  and  our  own  country  would  sooner  or  later 
have  met  equally  hard  terms.  President  Wilson  justly  summed 
up  the  treaty  as  "Severe  but  just." 

After  weeks  of  delay,  the  exchange  of  notes  between  the 
Allied  statesmen  and  the  German  delegates,  in  a  vain  endeavor 
on  the  part  of  Germany  to  secure  modification  of  the  terms- 
efforts  resulting  in  only  trifling  changes-the  treaty  was  signed 
by  delegates  from  aH  the  Allied  powers  (except  China)  and 
Germany  June  28, 1919,  five  years  to  a  day  after  the  assassina- 
tion of  the  Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand  at  Sarajevo.     The 
five  years  that  had  intervened  constitute  the  most  memorable 
period  of  time  in  history.    Probably  no  equal  term  of  years 
had  been  attended  with  such  an  appalling  loss  of  life,  had  been 
more  heavily  freighted  with  woe,  had  witnessed  such  a  tremen- 
dous outpouring  of  blood  and  treasure  as  the  five  years  ended 
with  the  signing  of  the  treaty. 

The  treaty  was  signed  in  the  celebrated  Hall  of  Mirrors 
in  the  wonderful  palace  of  Versailles,  France.  This  hall  is 
intimately  connected  with  great  events  in  the  history  of  France 
of  Germany,  and  now  of  the  world.  Here  was  signed  the 
treaty  putting  an  end  to  the  Franco-German  war,  here  the 
German  empire  was  inaugurated  and  WiUiam  I  crowned  em- 
peror, here  by  this  treaty  was  the  work  of  Bismarck  completely 
undone  and  the  constitution  of  a  proposed  League  of  Nations 
set  forth,  one  of  the  greatest  events  in  the  history  of  the  world. 


CONDENSED  CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  WAR 


1914. 

June  28 — Murder  at  Serajevo  of  the 
Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand. 

July  23 — ^Austro-Hungarian  ultimatum 
to  Serbia. 

July  28 — Austria-Hungary  declares 
war  on  Serbia. 

July  31 — General  mobilization  in 
Russia.  "State  of  war"  declared  in 
Germany. 

Aug.  1 — Germany  declared  war  on 
Russia  and  invaded  Luxemburg. 

Aug.  2 — German  ultimatum  to  Bel- 
gium, demanding  free  passage  across 
Belgium. 

Aug.  3 — Germany  declares  war  on 
France. 

Aug.  4 — War  declared  by  Great  Britain 
on  Germany. 

Aug.  4 — President  Wilson  proclaimed 
neutrality  of  United  States. 

Aug.  4-26 — Belgium  overrun:  Liege 
occupied  (Aug.  9)  ;  Brussels  (Aug.  20) ; 
Namur  (Aug.  24). 

Aug.  6 — Austria-Hungary  declares  war 
on  Russia. 

Aug.  10 — France  declares  war  on 
Austria-Hungary. 

Aug.  12 — Great  Britain  declares  war 
on  Austria-Hungary. 

Aug.  16 — British  expeditionary  force 
landed  in  France. 

Aug.  18 — ^Russia  completes  mobiliza- 
tion and  invades  East  Prussia. 

Aug.  21-23 — Battle  of  Mons-Charleroi. 
Dogged  retreat  of  French  and  British 
in  the  face  of  the  German  invasion. 

Aug.  23 — ^Tsingtau  bombarded  by 
Japanese. 

Aug^  25 -Dec.  15 — Russians  overrun 
Galicia.  Lemberg  taken  ( Sept.  2 )  ; 
Przemysl  first  attacked  (Sept.  16); 
siege  broken  (Oct.  12-Nov.  12).  Fall  of 
Przemysl  (Mar.  17,  1915).  Dec.  4, 
Russians  3^^   miles  from  Cracow. 

Aug.  26 — Germans  destroy  Louvain. 

Aug.  26 — Allies  conquer  Togoland,  in 
Africa. 

Aug.  26 — ^Russians  severely  defeated 
at  Battle  of  Tannenberg  in  East  Prussia. 

Aug.  28 — British  naval  victory  in 
Helgoland  Bight. 


Aug.  31 — Allies*  line  along  the  Seine, 
Marne  and  Meuse  rivers. 

Aug.  31— Name  St.  Petersburg  changed 
to  Petrograd  by  Russian  decree. 

Sept.  3 — French  Government  removed 

(temporarily)    from  Paris  to  Bordeaux. 

Sept.    5 — Great    Britain,    France   and 

Russia  sign  a  treaty  not  to  make  peace 

separately. 

Sept.  6-10— First  Battle  of  the  Marne. 
Germans  reach  the  extreme  point  of  their 
advance;  driven  back  by  the  French 
from  the  Marne  to  the  River  Aisne. 

Sept.  7— Germans  take  Maubeuge. 

Sept.  11— An  Australian  expedition 
captures  New  Guinea  and  the  Bismark 
Archipelago  Protectorate. 

Sept.  16 — Russians  under  Gen.  Rennen- 
kampf  driven  from  East  Prussia. 

Se[)t.  22 — Three  British  armored 
cruisers  sunk  by  a  submarine. 

Sept.  27 — Successful  invasion  of  Ger- 
man Southwest  Africa  by  Gen.  Botha. 

Oct.  9 — Germans  occupy  Antwerp. 

Oct.  13 — Belgian  Government  with- 
draws to  Le  Havre,  in  France.  Germans 
occupy  Ghent. 

Oct.  16-28— Battle  of  the  Yser,  in 
Flanders.  Belgians  and  French  halt 
German  advance. 

Oct.  17-Nov.  17— French,  Belgians  and 
British  repulse  German  drive  in  first 
battle  of  Ypres,  saving  Channel  ports 
(decisive  day  of  battle,  Oct.  31). 

Oct.  21-28 — German  armies  driven  back 
in  Poland. 

Oct.  28— De  Wet's  Rebellion  in  South 
Africa. 

Nov.  1 — German  naval  victory  in  the 
Pacific  off  the  coast  of  Chile. 

Nov.  3 — German  naval  raid  into  Eng- 
lish waters. 

Nov.  5 — Great  Britain  declared  war 
on  Turkey;  Cyprus  annexed. 

Nov.  7— Fall  of  Tsingtau  to  the 
Japanese. 

Nov.  10-Dec.  14 — Austrian  invasion  of 
Serbia  ( Belgrade  taken  Dec.  2,  recaptured 
by  Serbians  Dec.  14). 

Nov.  10 — German  cruiser  "Emden" 
caught  and  destroyed  at  Cocos  Island. 


CONDENSED  CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  WAR 


Nov.  21--Basra,  on  Persian  Gulf,  occu- 
pied by  British. 

IT  nT*  5";^/'*l®^  °^^^^  victory  off  the 
Falkland  Islands. 

Dec.  8— South  African  rebellion  col- 
lapses. 

Dec.  9— French  Government  returned 
to  Pans. 

wSff""*  16— German  warships  bombarded 
tv,  ?1  Hartlepool,  Scarborough  and 
Uhitby. 

Dec.  17--Egypt  proclaimed  a  British 
I'rotectorate,  and  a  new  ruler  appointed 
with  title  of  sultan. 

Dec.  24~rirst  German  air  raid  on 
England. 

1915. 

Jan.  l-Feb.  15— Russians  attempt  to 
cross  the  Carpathians. 

XT  "^x?*  c  ^^"~:?^*^^^  °aval  victory  in 
North  Sea  oflf  Dogger  Bank. 

Jan.  25--Second  Russian  invasion  of 
East  Prussia. 

Jan.  28 — American  merchantman  "Wil- 
.V^'^  ^'J'^y^"  sunk  by  German  cruiser 
"Prmz  Eitel  Friedrich." 

Feb.    4— Germany's    proclamation    of 
war  zone"  around  the  British  Isles  after 
February  18. 

Feb.   10— United  States  note  holding 
u  M^^^  Government  to  a  "strict  account- 
?T  -x  ?  c?^^"y  merchant  vessel  of  the 
United  States  is  destroyed  or  any  Ameri- 
can citizens  lose  their  lives. 

^^»  •  l^—Germany's  reply  stating  "war 
zone  act  is  an  act  of  self-defense  against 
illegal  methods  employed  by  Great 
Britain  in  preventing  commerce  between 
Germany  and  neutral  countries. 

Feb.  18— German  official  "blockade"  of 
Great  Britain  commenced.  German  sub- 
°ilia°^"  ^^g»»  campaign  of  "piracy  and 

Feb.  19--Anglo.French  squadron  bom- 
bards Dardanelles. 

Feb.  20— United  States  sends  identic 
note  to  Great  Britain  and  Germany  sug- 
gesting an  agreement  between  these  two 
powers  respecting  the  conduct  of  naval 
warfare. 

Feb.  28~Germany's  reply  to  identic 
note. 

"kJ^^i^*^  1—Announcement    of    British 
blockade":   "Orders  in  Council"  issued 
to  prevent  commodities  of  any  kind  from 
reaching  or  leaving  Germany. 

Mar.  10— British  capture  Neuve 
Unapelle. 


Mar.  17— Russians  captured  Przemvsl 
and  strengthened  their  hold  on  the  greater 
part  of  Galicia.  ^ 

Mar.  28— British  steamship  "Falaba" 
attacked   by  submarine  and  sunk    (111 
lives  lost;  1  American). 
athT'  ^~~^"®^^*°^  fighting  in  the  Car- 

Apr.  8— Steamer  "Harpalyce,"  in  serv- 
ice of  American  commission  for  aid  of 
Belgium,  torpedoed;  15  lives  lost. 

Apr.  17-May  17— Second  Battle  of 
TiPr®*  /  ?" M^^^  captured  Hill  60  (April 
19);  (April  23);  Germans  advanced 
toward  Yser  Canal.  Asphyxiating  gas 
employed  by  the  Germans.  Failure  of 
Germany  to  break  through  the  British 
lines. 

Apr.  22— German  embassy  sends  out  a 
warning  against  embarkation  on  vessels 
belonging  to  Great  Britain. 

.^l?f' ^l—^erican  vessel  "Gushing" 
attacked  by  German  aeroplane. 

Apr.  30— Germans  invade  the  Baltic 
Provinces  of  Russia. 

V  ¥^7  l~American  steamship  "Gulf- 
light  sunk  by  German  submarine;  two 
Americans  lost.  Warning  of  German 
embassy  published  in  daily  papers. 

May  2— Russians  forced  by  the  com- 
bmed  Germans  and  Austrians  to  retire 
/ B^^^i  ^'f  positions  in  the  Carpathians 
(Battle  of  the  Dunajec). 

May  7— Cunard  line  steamship  "Lusi- 
tania '  sunk  by  German  submarine  (1.154 
lives  lost,  114  being  Americans). 

May  8— Germans  occupy  Libau,  Rus- 
sian port  on  the  Baltic. 

May  9-June-Battle  of  Artois,  or 
Festubert  (near  La  Bassee). 

May  10— Message  of  sympathy  from 
Germany  on  loss  of  American  lives  by 
sinking  of  "Lusitania."  ^ 

May  12— South  African  troops  under 
Gen.  Botha  occupy  capital  of  German 
Southwest  Africa. 

May  13— American  note  protests 
against  submarine  policy  culminating  in 
the  sinking  of  the  "Lusitania." 

May  23— Italy  declared  war  on 
Austria-Hungary. 

May  25— Coalition  cabinet  formed  in 
Great  Britain;  Asquith  continues  to  be 
Prime  Minister. 

May  25— American  steamship  "Ne- 
braskan"  attacked  by  submarine. 

May  28— Germany's  answer  to  Ameri- 
can note  of  May  13. 


CONDENSED  CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  WAR. 


Jane  1— Supplementary  note  from 
Germany  in  re^^rd  to  the  "Gulflight" 
and  "Cushing."  ,       ,     ^ 

June  3— Przemysl  retaken  by  Germans 
and  Austrians. 

June  8— Resignation  of  William  J. 
Bryan,  Secretary  of  State. 

June  9— Monfalcone  occupied  by  Ital- 
ians, severing  one  of  two  railway  lines 
to  Trieste.  ,  , 

June  9— United  States  sends  second 
note  on  "Lusitania"  case. 

June  22— The  Austro-Germana  re- 
capture Lemberg. 

July  2— Naval  action  between  Russian 
and  German  warships  in  the  Baltic. 

July  8— Germany  sends  reply  to  note 
of  June  9  and  pledges  safety  to  United 
States  vessels  in  war  zone  under  specified 
conditions.  ,  , 

July  15— Germany  sends  memorandum 
acknowledging  submarine  attack  on 
"Nebraskan"  and  expresses  regret. 

July  15— Conquest  of  German  South- 
west Africa  completed. 

July  21 — ^Third  American  note  on 
"Lusitania"  case  declares  Germany's 
communication  of  July  8  "very  unsatis- 
factory." .  , 
July  12-Sept.  18— German  conquest  of 
Russian  Poland.  Germans  capture  Lub- 
lin (July  31),  Warsaw  (Aug.  4),  Ivan- 
eorod  ( Aug.  6 ) ,  Kovno  (Aug.  17),  Novo- 
leorgievsk  (Aug.  19),  Brest-Litovsk 
(Aug.  25),  Vilna  (Sept.  18). 

July  25— American  steamship  Lee- 
lanaw"  sunk  by  submarines;  carrying 
contraband;  no  lives  lost. 

Aug.  4— Capture  of  Warsaw  by  Ger- 
mans. 

Aug.  19— White  Star  liner  "Arabic" 
sunk  by  submarine;  16  victims,  2  Amen- 
cans. 

Aug.  20— Italy  declared  war  on  Turkey. 
Aug.  24 — German  ambassador  sends 
note  in  regard  to  "Arabic."  Loss  of 
American  lives  contrary  to  intention  of 
the  German  Government  and  is  deeply 
regretted.  ^    ,         , 

gept.  1— Letter  from  Ambassador  von 
Bernstorff  to  Secretary  Lansing  giving 
assurance  that  German  submarines  will 
sink  no  more  liners  without  warning. 
Endorsed  by  the  German  Foreign  Office 
(Sept.  14). 

Sept.  4— Allan  liner  "Hesperian"  sunk 
by  German  submarine;  26  lives  lost,  1 
American. 

Sept.  7— German  Government  sends 
report  on  the  sinking  of  the  "Arabic. 


Sept.  8— United  States  demands  recall 
of  Austro-Hungarian  ambassador,  Dr. 
Dumba. 

Sept.  14— United  States  sends  sum- 
mary of  evidence  in  regard  to  "Arabic. 

Sept.  18— Fall  of  Vilna;  end  of  Russian 

Sept.*  25-Oct.— French  offensive  in 
Champagne  fails  to  break  through  Ger- 
man lines.  .        , 

Sept.  27— British  progress  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Loos. 

Qct.    4 — Russian   ultimatum   to    Bul- 

Oct.  5— Allied  forces  land  at  Saloniki, 
at  the  invitation  of  the  Greek  Govern- 

Oct.  5— German  Government  regrets 
and  disavows  sinking  of  "Arabic"  and  la 
prepared  to  pay  indemnities. 

Oct  6-Dec.  2— Austro-German-Bul- 
crarian  conquest  of  Serbia.  Fall  of  Nish 
INov.  5),  of  Prizrend  (Nov.  30),  of 
Monastir  (Dec.  2).  .^  .  ,  ,  ,  ,„„, 
Oct.  14— Great  Britain  declared  war 
against  Bulgaria. 

Nov.  10— Russian  forces  advance  on 
Teheran  as  a  result  of  pro-German  activi- 
ties in  Persia.  ,  ^  -,  .  j 
Dec  1— British  under  Gen.  Townshend 
forced  to  retreat  from  Ctesiphon  to 
Kut-el-Amara. 

Dec.  4— United  States  Government  de- 
mands recall  of  Capt.  Karl  Boy-Ed, 
German  naval  attache,  and  Capt.  Franz 
von  Papen,  military  attache. 

Pec.  6— Germans  captured  Ipek 
(Montenegro). 

Dec.  13— British  defeat  Arabs  on  west- 
ern frontier  of  Egypt.  ^.     ,  . 

Dec.  15— Sir  John  French  retired  from 
command  of  the  army  in  France  and 
Flanders,  and  is  succeeded  by  Sir  Douglas 

Dec.  17— Russians  occupied  Hamadan 
(Persia).  .^,  . 

Dec  19— The  British  forces  withdrawn 
from  Anzac  and  Sulva  Bay  (Gallipoh 
Peninsula).  ^  .       t.      •„ 

Dec.  26— Russian  forces  m  Persia 
occupied  Kashan. 

j)ee.  30— British  passenger  steamer 
"Persia"  sunk  in  Mediterranean,  pre- 
sumably by  submarine. 


1916. 

Jan.  8 — Complete  evacuation  of  Galli- 

^"^Jan.   13— Fall  of  Cettinje,  capital  of 
Montenegro. 


CONDENSED  CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  WAR. 


Jan  18— United  States  Government 
sets  forth  a  declaration  of  principles 
regarding  submarine  attacks  and  asks 
whether  the  governments  of  the  Allies 
would  subscribe  to  such  an  agreement. 

Jan.  28— Austrians  occupy  San  Gio- 
vanni de  Medjci  (Albania). 

Feb.  10— Germany  sends  memorandum 
to  neutral  powers  that  armed  merchant 
ships  will  be  treated  as  warships  and  will 
be  sunk  without  warning. 

Feb.  15— Secretary  Lansing  makes 
statement  that  by  international  law 
commercial  vessels  have  right  to  carrv 
arms  in  self-defense.  ^ 

Feb.  16— Germany  sends  note  ac- 
knowledging her  liability  in  the  "Lusi- 
tania"  affair. 

qufrld.    ^^~"^*^^^"»     [(Africa)     con- 

Feb.  21-July— Battle  of  Verdun.  Ger- 
mans take  Ft.  Douaumont  (Feb.  25) 
Great  losses  of  Germans  with  little  re- 
suits.  Practically  all  the  ground  lost 
was  slowly  regained  by  the  French  in 
the  autumn. 

Feb.  24— President  Wilson  in  letter  to 
Senator  Stone  refuses  to  advise  Ameri- 
can  citizens  not  to  travel  on  armed  mer- 
chant ships. 

BhS'iPerZ^""^""^  ^^P*-^^  ^^^--^■ 
Mar.  8— German  ambassador  com- 
municates memorandum  regarding  U- 
boat  question  stating  it  is  a  new  w?apon 
not  yet  regulated  by  international  law. 
p^™-^^— Germany    declares    war    on 

(P^r^sik)!^^"""^"^^'^"^    ^"*^'*^^    Ispahan 

fJ^A  ^^"^Ju"^?  "*^^^^^  "Sussex"  is 
torpedoed    without    warning;    about    80 

ri'TifT'  including  American  citizens, 
are  killed  or  wounded. 

m^^^a  2f-Department  of  State  issues 
memorandum  m  regard  to  armed  mer- 
chant  vessels  in  neutral  ports  and  on 
the  nigh  seas. 

n,.^r-    f -2p-ynited    States    Govern- 
ment instructs  American  ambassador  in 
,,      to  inquire  into  sinking  of  "Sus- 
sex" and  other  vessels. 

in^Til'^^A~Z?7'^^''  Government  replies 
to  United  States  notes  of  March  27,  28 
29,  on  the  sinking  of  "Sussex"  and  other 
vessels. 

ill'  JI~?T"?f'^"^  capture  Trebizond. 
^  Apr.  18— United  States  delivers  what 
IS  considered  an  ultimatum  that  unless 
Germany  abandons  present  methods  of 


submarine  warfare   United   States    will 
sever  diplomatic  relations. 

Apr.  19— President  addressed  Congress 
on  relations  with  Germany. 

utr'   ^^"^^y   l—Insurrection   in   Ire- 

+  ^P^*n?^7^^°;  Townshend  surrendered 
to  the  Turks  before  Kut-el-Amara. 

May  4— Reply  of  Germany  ac- 
knowledges  sinking  of  the  "Sussex"  and 
m  the  mam  meets  demands  of  the  United 

May  8— United  States  Government  ac- 
cepts  German   position    as    outlined    in 

?i?^fffli?^^^5.^'!*  ""^^^^  ^*  c^^ar  that 
the  fulfillment  of  these  conditions  can  not 

fl!?fT  •+"?  o^i  }^^  negotiations  between 
tne  United  States  and  any  other  belliger- 
ent Government. 

.w?^  Ifi^""^  3-Great  Austrian  attack 
\t      ^*?^^?L»s  through  the  Trentino. 
May  19— Russians  join  British  on  the 
I  igris. 

May  27— President  in  address  before 
League  to  Enforce  Peace  says  United 
btates  IS  ready  to  join  any  practical 
league  for  preserving  peace  and  guaran- 
teeing political  and  territorial  integrity 
of  nations.  ^     ^ 

May  31— Naval  battle  off  Jutland. 

June  4-30— Russian  offensive  in  Vol- 
hynia  and  Bukoyina.  Czernovitz  taken 
(June  17) ;  all  Bukovina  overrun. 

June  5— Lord  Kitchener  drowned 

June  21-United  States  demands 
apology  and  reparation  from  Austria- 
Hungary  for  sinking  by  Austrian  sub- 
^eslef  ^^t^olite/'    an    American 

July    l-Nov.— Battle    of    the   Somme. 

STa  ?'  *5^^?    <?^P*-   26).     Failure  of 
the  Allies  to  break  the  German  lines 

Aug.  6.Sept.-New  Italian  offensive 
drives  out  Austrians  and  wins  Gorizia 
(Aug.  y). 

Aug.  27-Italy  declares  war  on  Ger- 
many. 

Aug.     27-Jan.     15,     1917-Roumania 
enters  war  on  the  side  of  the  Allies  and 
18  crushed.     (Pall  of  Bucharest,  Dec.  6 
Dobrudja    conquered,    Jan.    2;    Focsani 
captured,  Jan.  8). 

Oct.  8— German  submarine  appears 
off  American  coast  and  sinks  British 
passenger  steamer  "Stephano." 

Oct.  28— British  steamer  "Marina" 
los't)  ""^^    warning    (6    Americans 


CONDENSED  CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  WAR. 


Nov.  6— British  liner  "Arabia"  tor- 
pedoed and  sunk  without  warning  m 
Mediterranean. 

j^ov,  29— United  States  protests 
against  Belgian  deportations. 

Dec.  12— German  peace  offer.  Refused 
(Dec.  30)  by  Allies  as  "empty  and  in- 
sincere." ,  .     u- 

Dec.  14— British  horse-transport  ship 
"Russian"  sunk  in  Mediterranean  by 
submarine  (17  Americans  lost ) . 

Dec.  20— President  Wilson's  peace  note 
(dated  Dec.  18).  Germany  replies  (Dec. 
26).  Entente  Allies'  reply  (Jan.  10)  de- 
mands "restorations,  reparation,  indem- 
nities." 

1917. 

Jan.  10— The  Allied  Governments 
Btate  their  terms  of  peace;  a  separate 
note  from  Belgium  included. 

Jan.  11— Supplemental  German  note 
on  views  as  to  settlement  of  war. 

Jan.  13— Great  Britain  amplifies  reply 
to  President's  note  of  Dec.  18.  FavorB 
cooperation  to  preserve  peace. 

Jan.  22— President  Wilson  addresses 
the  Senate,  giving  his  ideas  of  steps 
necessary  for  world  peace. 

Jan.  31 — Germany  announced  un- 
restricted submarine  warfare  in  specified 
zones.  ,.  - 

■peh.  3 — United  States  severs  diplo- 
matic relations  with  Germany;  Bern- 
storff  dismissed.  . 

■peh.  12 — ^United  States  replies  to  Swiss 
Minister  that  it  will  not  negotiate  with 
Germany  until  submarine  order  is  with- 
drawn. ,  _        ,    .  .     . 

■peh.  18— Italians  and  French  join  in 
Albania,  cutting  off  Greece  from  the 
Central  Powers. 

Peb.  24 — Kut-el-Amara  taken  by 
British  under  Gen.  Maude  (campaign 
begun  Dec.  13). 

Feb.  26— President  Wilson  asks  au- 
thority to  arm  merchant  ships. 

j'elj,  28 — "Zimmerman  note"  revealed. 
I^ar.  4 — Announced  that  the  British 
had  taken  over  from  the  French  the  en- 
tire Somme  front;  British  held  on  west 
front  100  miles,  French  175  miles,  Bel- 
gians 25  miles. 

Mar.  11— Bagdad  captured  by  British 
under  Gen.  Maude. 

Mar.  11-15— Revolution  in  Russia, 
leading  to  abdication  of  Czar  Nicholas 
II  (Mar.  15).  Provisional  Government 
formed  by  Constitutional  Democrats 
under  Prince  Lvov  and  M.  Milyukov. 


Mar.  12— United  States  announced  that 
an  armed  guard  would  be  placed  on  all 
American  merchant  vessels  sailing 
through  the  war  zone. 

Mar.  17-19— Retirement  of  Germans  to 
"Hindenburg  line."  Evacuation  of  1,300 
square  miles  of  French  territory,  on 
front  of  100  miles,  from  Arras  to  Sois- 
sons. 

Mar.  22— United  States  formally  recog- 
nized the  new  government  of  Russia  set 
up  as  a  result  of  the  revolution. 

Mar.  26— The  United  States  refused 
the  proposal  of  Germany  to  interpret 
and  supplement  the  Prussian  Treaty  of 
1799. 

Mar.  27— Minister  Brand  Whitlock  and 
American  Relief  Commission  withdrawn 
from  Belgium. 

Apr.  2— President  Wilson  asks  Con- 
gress to  declare  the  existence  of  a  state 
of  war  with  Germany. 

^pr,  6 — United  States  declares  war  on 

Germanv. 

Apr.  8— Austria-Hungary  severs  diplo- 
matic relations  with  the  United  States. 

Apr.  9-May  14— British  successes  in 
Battle  of  Arras;  (Vimy  Ridge  taken 
Apr.  9). 

Apr.  16-May  6— French  successes  m 
Battle  of  the  Aisne  between  Soissons 
and  Rheims. 

Apr.  20— Turkey  severs  relations  with 
United  States. 

May  4 — American  destroyers  begin 
cooperation  with  British  navy  in  war 
zone. 

May  15-Sept.  15— Great  Italian  offen- 
sive on  Isonzo  front  (Carso  Plateau). 
Capture  of  Gorizia,  Aug.  9.  Monte  Santo 
taken  Aug.  24.  Monte  San  Gabrielle, 
Sept.  14.  ^     ^ 

May  15— Gen.  Retain  succeeds  Gen. 
Nivelle  as  commander  in  chief  of  the 
French  armies. 

May  17— Russian  Provisional  Govern- 
ment reconstructed.  Kerensky  (formerly 
minister  of  justice)  becomes  minister  of 
war. 

May  18— President  Wilson  signs  selec- 
tive service  act. 

June  3 — American  mission  to  Russia 
lands  at  Vladivostok  ("Root  Mission") 
Returns  to  America  Aug.  3. 

June  7— British  blow  up  Messines 
Ridge,  south  of  Ypres,  and  capture 
7,500  German  prisoners. 

June  10— Italian  offensive  on  Trentino. 
June  12— King  Constantine  of  Greece 
forced  to  abdicate. 


CONDENSED  CHRONOLOGY  OP  THE  WAR 


June  IS—Subscriptions  close  for  first 
Liberty  Loan  ($2,000,000,000  offered  • 
$3,035,220,850  subscribed) . 

June  26— First  American  troops  reach 
France. 

June  29— Greece  enters  war  with  Ger- 
many and  her  allies. 

July  1— Russian  army  led  in  person 
by  Kerensky  begins  a  short-line  offensive 
m  Galicia,  ending  in  disastrous  retreat 
(July  19-Aug.  3). 

July  4— Resignation  of  Bethmann  Holl- 
weg  as  German  chancellor.  Dr.  George 
Michaelis,  chancellor  (July  14). 

July  20~Drawing  at  Washington  of 
names  for  first  army  under  selective 
service. 

July  20-~Kerensky  becomes  premier  on 
resignation  of  Prince  Lvov. 

July  30— Mutiny  in  German  fleet  at 
Wilhelmshaven  and  Kiel.  Second 
mutiny  Sept.  2. 

July  31-Nov.-~Battle  of  Flanders  (Pas- 
schendaele  Ridge) ;  British  successes. 

Aug.  10— Food  and  fuel  control  bill 
passed. 

Aug     15— Peace    proposals    of    Pope 
Benedict     revealed      (dated     Aug.      1) 
United  States  replies  Aug.  27;  Germany 
and    Austria,    Sept.    21;    supplementary 
German  reply,  Sept.  2G. 

Aug.  15— Canadians  capture  Hill  70 
dominating  Lens. 

Aug.  19— New  Italian  drive  on  the 
Isonz  front  (Carso  Plateau).  Monte 
banto  captured   (Aug.  24). 

Aug.  20-24— French  attacks  at  Verdun 
recapture  high  ground  lost  in  1916. 
Sept.  3— Riga  captured  by  Germans, 
bept.  8— Luxburg  dispatches  ("Spurlos 
versenkt")   revealed  by  United  States. 

Sept.  10-13— Attempted  coup  d'etat  of 
Gen.  Kornilov. 
Sept.  15— Russia  proclaimed  a  republic. 
Uct.    12— Germans   occupy   Oesel   and 
Dago  Islands  (Gulf  of  Riga). 

Oct.  17— Russians  defeated  in  a  naval 
engagement  in  the  Gulf  of  Riga. 

Oct.  24-Dec.— Great  German-Austrian 
counterdrive  into  Italy.  Italian  line 
shifted  to  Piave  River,  Asiago  Plateau 
and  Brenta  River. 

Oct.  23-26— French  drive  north  of  the 
Aisne  wins  important  positions  includ- 
ing Malmaison  Fort. 

Oct.  26— Brazil  declares  war  on  Ger- 
many. 

,Po^Lr.^J:7^^^^^^   Liberty  loan   closed 
($3,000,000,000   offered;    $4,617,532,300 
Bubscnbed). 


Oct.  30— Count  von  Hertlinff  succeeds 
Michaelis  as  German  chancello?. 

JSov.    2— Germans    retreat    from    the 
Chemindes  Dames,  north  of  the  Aisne. 

^ov.  3--First  clash  of  American  with 
German  soldiers. 

Nov.   7-Overthrow   of  Kerensky  and 
BXllevir   ^''''^'■''°'^"*  «^  Russia  by  the 

FrS  pL?er  "''"^  '"'^'^^^  ^^^^*  ^^ 

taife'j-aff'a'r^^^*^^^  '^^^^^  ^"  P^^-*-« 
Nov.  22-Dec.  13-Battle  of  Cambrai. 
Successful  surprise  attack  near  Cambrai 
by  British  under  Gen.  Byng  on  Nov  22 
(employs  "tanks"  to  brlaf  down  wire 
entanglements  in  place  of  the  usual 
artillery  preparations).  Bourlon  Wood, 
dominating  Cambrai,  taken  Nov.  26 
Surprise  counter-attack  by  Germans,  Dec! 
^y  compels  British  to  give  up  fourth  of 
ground  gained.  German  attacks  on  Dec. 
13  partly  successful. 

T  ?''''n?^^"Tf '?*  plenary  session  of  the 
Interallied  Conference  in  Paris.  Sixteen 
nations  represented.  Col.  E.  M.  House 
chairman  of  American  delegation. 

Dec.  5— President  Wilson,  in  message 
to  Congress,  advises  war  on  Austria. 

Dec  6— United  States  destroyer  "Jacob 
Jones  sunk  by  submarine,  with  loss 
of  over  40  American  men. 

^^,^'  ?— Explosion  of  munitions  vessel 
wrecks  Halifax. 

Dec.    6-9— Armed    revolt    overthrows 
pro- Ally  administration  in  Portugal. 
*  ^f^:  7— United  States  declares  war  on 
Austria-Hungary. 

Dec.  9— Jerusalem  captured  by  British 
force  advancing  from  Egypt. 

Dec.  10— Gens.  Kaledines  and  Kornilov 
declared  by  the  Bolsheviki  Government 
to  be  leading  a  Cossock  revolt. 

Dec.  15— Armistice  signed  between 
Germany  and  the  Bolsheviki  Government 
at  Brest-Litovsk. 

Dec.  23— Peace  negotiations  opened  at 
Brest-Litovsk  between  Bolsheviki  Govern- 
ment and  Central  Powers,  under  Presi- 
dency of  the  German  foreign  minister. 

Dec.  26— President  Wilson  issues  proc- 
lamation taking  over  railroads  and  ap- 
pointing W.  G.  McAdoo,  director-general. 
Proclamation  takes  effect  at  noon, 
December  28. 

Dec.  29 — British  national  labor  con- 
ference approves  continuation  of  war 
for  aims  similar  to  those  defined  by 
President  Wilson, 


CONDENSED  CHEONOLOGY  OF  THE  WAR. 


1918. 

Jan.  10— American  troops  take  over 
sector  northwest  of  Toul. 

Feb.  6— "Tuscania,"  American  trans- 
port, torpedoed  off  coast  of  Ireland;  101 

lost.  .  '      nx.      -^ 

Feb.  22— American  troops  in  Chemm 

des  Dames  sector. 

Mar.  3— Peace  treaty  between  Bolshe- 
vik Government  of  Russia  and  the  Central 
Towers  signed  at  Brest-Litovsk. 

Mar.  4— Treaty  signed  between  Ger- 
many and  Finland.  ^     , 

Mar.  5 — Rumania  signs  preliminary 
troatv  of  peace  with  Central  Powers. 

Mar.  20 — President  Wilson  orders  all 
Holland  ships  in  American  ports  taken 

over.  ,  _  . 

Mar.  21— Germans  begin  great  drive  on 
60-mile  front  from  Arras  to  La  Fere. 
Bombardment  of  Paris  by  German  long- 
range  gun  from  a  distance  of  76  miles. 
Mar.  29— General  Foch  chosen  com- 
mander-in-chief of  all  Allied  forces. 

^pr,  9— Second  German  drive  begun 
in  Flanders.  .    14.  j 

Apr.  10— First  German  drive  halted 
before  Amiens  after  maximum  advance 
of  35  miles.  ,    ,^   , 

Apr.  15— Second  German  drive  halted 
before  Ypres,  after  maximum  advance 
of  10  miles. 

Apr.  23— British  naval  forces  raid 
Zeebrugge  in  Belgium,  German  submarine 
base,  and  block  channel. 

]^ay  27— Third  German  drive  begins  on 
Aisne-I^Iarne  frfont  of  30  miles  between 
Soissons  and  Uheims. 

May  28— Germans  sweep  on  beyond  the 
Chemin  des  Dames  and  cross  the  Vesle  at 
Fismes. 

May  28— Cantigny  taken  by  Americans 
in  local  attack. 
May  29— Soissons  evacuated  by  French. 
May  31— Marne  River  crossed  by  Ger- 
mans,   who    reach    Chateau   Thierry,   40 
miles  from  Paris. 

May  31 — "President  Lincoln,"  Ameri- 
can transport,  sunk. 

June  2— Schooner  "Edward  H.  Cole" 
torpedoed  by  submarine  off  American 
coast. 

June  3-6— American  marines  and  regu- 
lars check  advance  of  Germans  at 
Chateau  Thierry  and  Neuilly  after  maxi- 
mum advance  of  Germans  of  32  miles. 
Beginning  of  American  cooperation  on 
major  scale. 


June  9-14— German  drive  on  Noyon- 
Montdidier  front.  Maximum  advance, 
5  miles. 

June  15-24 — Austrian  drive  on  Italian 
front  ends  in  complete  failure. 

July  12 — Berat,  Austrian  base  in  Al- 
bania, captured  by  Italians. 

July  15— Stonewall  defense  of  Chateau 
Thierry  blocks  new  German  drive  on 
Paris. 

July  16— Nicholas  Romanoff,  ex-Czar 
of  Russia,  executed  at  Yekaterinburg. 

July  18— French  and  Americans  begin 
counter  offensive  on  Marne-Aisne  front. 
July  10— "San  Diego,"  United  States 
cruiser,  sunk  off  Fire  Island. 

July  21 — German  submarine  ^sinks 
three  barges  off  Cape  Cod. 

Jiug,  3 — Allies  sweep  on  between  Sois- 
sons and  Rheims,  driving  the  enemy  from 
his  base  at  Fismes  and  capturing  the 
entire  Aisne- Vesle  front. 

Aug,  7 — Franco-American  troops  cross 
the  Vesle. 

Aug.  8— New  Allied  drive  begun  by 
Field-Marshal  Haig  in  Picardy,  penetrat- 
ing enemy  front  14  miles. 

Aug.  10 — Montdidier  recaptured. 
Aug.  29 — Noyon  and  Bapaume  fall  in 
new  Allied  advance. 

Sept.  1— Australians  take  Peronne. 
Sept.  1 — Americans  fight  for  the  first 
time  on  Belgian  soil  and  capture  Voor- 
mezeele. 

Sept.  11— Germans  are  driven  back  to 
the  Hindenburg  line  which  they  held  in 
November,  1917. 

Sept.  14— St.  Mihiel  recaptured  from 
Germans.  General  Pershing  announces 
entire  St.  Mihiel  salient  erased,  liberat- 
ing more  than  150  square  miles  of  French 
territory  which  had  been  in  German 
hands  since  1914. 

Sept.  20 — Nazareth  occupied  by  British 
forces  in  Palestine  under  Gen.  Allenby. 

Sept.  23— Bulgarian  armies  flee  before 
combined  attacks  of  British,  Greek, 
Serbian,  Italian  and  French. 

Sept.  26— Strumnitza,  Bulgaria,  occu- 
pied by  Allies. 

Sept.  27 — Franco-Americans  in  drive 
from  Rheims  to  Verdun  take  30,000 
prisoners. 

Sept.  28— Belgians  attack  enemy  from 
Ypres  to  North  Sea,  gaining  four  miles. 
Sept.  29 — Bulgaria  surrenders  to  Gen. 
d'Esperey,  the  Allied  commander. 

Oct.  1— St.  Quentin,  cornerstone  of 
Hindenburg  line,  captured. 


CONDENSED  CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  WAR. 


Oct.   1 — Damascus  occupied  by  British 
in  Palestine  campaign. 

Oct.  3— Albania  cleared  of  Austrians  by 
Italians. 

Oct-    4 — Ferdinand,    king   of   Bulgaria, 
abdicates;  Boris  succeeds. 

Oct.  5— Prince  Maximilian,  new  Ger- 
man Chancellor,  pleads  with  President 
Wilson  to  ask  Allies  for  armistice. 
Oct.  9— Cambrai  in  Allied  hands. 
Oct.  10— "Leinster,"  passenger  steamer, 
sunk  in  Irish  Channel  by  submarine; 
480  lives  lost;  final  German  atrocity  at 
sea. 

Oct.  11 — Americans  advance  through 
Argonne  forest. 

Oct.  12 — German  foreign  secretary, 
Solf,  says  plea  for  armistice  is  made 
in  name  of  German  -people;  agrees  to 
evacuate  all  foreign  soil. 

Oct.  13 — Laon  and  La  Fere  abandoned 
by  Germans. 

Oct.  13 — Grandpre  captured  by  Ameri- 
cans after  four  days'  battle. 

Oct.  14 — President  Wilson  refers  Ger- 
mans to  General  Foch  for  armistice  terms. 
Oct.    17 — Ostend,    German    submarine 
base,  taken  by  land  and  sea  forces. 

Oct.  19— Bruges  and  Zeebrugge  taken 
by  Belgians  and  British. 

Oct.  25— Beginning  of  terrific  Italian 
drive  which  nets  50,000  prisoners  in  five 
days. 

Oct.  31— Turkey  surrenders;  armistice 
takes  effect  at  noon;  conditions  include 
free  passage  of  Dardanelles. 

Nov.  3 — Austria  surrenders,  signing 
armistice  with  Italy  at  3  p.  m.  after 
500,000  prisoners  had  been  taken. 

Nov.  11 — Germany  surrenders;  arm- 
istice takes  effect  at  11  a.  m.  American 
flag  hoisted   on   Sedan  front. 

Nov.  21— The  German  high  seas  fleet, 
74  vessels  in  all,  surrendered  to  the  Al- 
lied fleet  to  be  interned  at  Scapa  Flow. 


Dec.  4— President  Wilson  sailed  from 
New  York  for  Europe,  to  attend  confer- 
ence on  the  larger  phases  of  the  treaty 
of  peace. 

Dec.  15— The  Allied  force  complete  the 
occupation  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine. 

1919. 

Jan.  10— A  republic  is  proclaimed  in 
Luxemburg. 

Jan.  18— The  peace  congress  (without 
delegates  from  the  defeated  powers  and 
Russia)  met  at  Paris.  Premier  Clemen- 
ceau  made  permanent  chairman. 

Jan.  21— Germany  by  the  terms  of  its 
new  constitution  divided  into  eight  fed- 
erated  republics. 

Jan.  25 — Discussion  of  the  covenants  of 
the  League  of  Nations  begun  in  the  peace 
congress. 

Feb.  11— Friedrick  Ebert  elected  first 
president  of  the   German  State. 

Feb.  14— The  draft  of  a  constitution 
for  a  League  of  Nations  adopted  by  the 
peace  congress. 

Feb.  19— Attempted  assassination  of 
Premier  Clemenceau. 

April  23 — Montenegro  becomes  a  part 
of  Jugo-Slavia. 

May  7— The  treaty  of  peace  framed  by 
representatives  of  the  twenty-seven  allied 
and  associated  powers,  handed  to  the 
German  delegates  at  Versailles. 

June  21— The  German  high  sea  fleet 
interned  at  Scapa  Flow  sunk  at  its  an- 
chorage by  the  officers  and  men  left  in 
charge. 

June  28— The  treaty  of  peace  signed  in 
the  Hall  of  Mirrors,  palace  of  Versailles, 
by  all  the  representatives  of  the  Allied 
powers  (except  China)  and  the  German 
delegates,  oflicially  closing  the  World 
War.  Just  five  years  after  the  assassina- 
tion of  the  Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand 
at  Serajevo. 

June  29— President  Wilson  left  Europe 
for  the  United  States. 


